Vocabulary: Batch 70

1. to create or perform something spontaneously, without preparation

   The jazz musicians improvised for an hour after the planned set.

2. to make do with whatever materials are available

   We forgot the tent poles, so we improvised with branches.

• the act of improvising; something performed or made spontaneously

  The best scene was pure improvisation.

'Improvised explosive device' (IED) is a common military term.

• created or done on the spot; made from whatever is available

  He gave an improvised speech.

• a person who improvises, especially in music or comedy

  She's a gifted improviser.

Short for improvisation or improvisational comedy.

• performance created spontaneously without a script

  She takes an improv class on weekends.

From French "route" (way). "Skincare routine", "morning routine". In comedy: a prepared performance sequence.

1. a fixed sequence of actions regularly followed

   He has a morning exercise routine.

2. a set sequence of movements or jokes in a performance

   The comedian did his usual stand-up routine.

• regular or ordinary

  It was a routine medical check.

• as part of a regular procedure rather than for a special reason

  Visitors are routinely checked by guards.

1. not closed, sealed, or blocked; allowing access or passage

   The door was wide open.

2. willing to consider or accept new ideas

   She is open to suggestions.

1. to move something so it is no longer closed, or to become no longer closed

   He opened the window.

2. to start operating or begin (a business, event, or period)

   The store opens at nine.

Two senses: a can/bottle opener, and the first act/game/item in a series ('the show's opener', 'the season opener').

1. a device for opening cans or bottles

   Grab the bottle opener from the drawer.

2. the first act, performer, game, or item in a series

   A local band was the opener for the show.

1. a space or gap that allows passage or access

   An opening in the fence.

2. a job vacancy

   There's an opening in the sales department.

3. the beginning of something, such as a performance or event

   The opening of the play was delayed by ten minutes.

4. a favorable opportunity

   This gives us an opening to renegotiate the contract.

"Hit the nail on the head" = exactly right. "Final nail in the coffin" = decisive end.

• a thin pointed metal pin for fastening

  He hammered the nail into the wood.

"Nail salon".

• a hard plate at the end of a finger

  She painted her nails red.

1. to fasten or attach with a nail

   He nailed the sign to the post.

2. (informal) to do something perfectly

   You nailed that interview!

3. (informal) to catch, arrest, or convict

   The police finally nailed the culprit.

Also 'nail the audition/exam/landing'. Opposite: blow it.

• (informal) to do something exactly right or succeed perfectly

  She nailed it on her first attempt.

"Sucker for X", informal: weakness for. "Sucker punch": surprise hit. "Lollipop" / "sucker": American hard candy on a stick.

1. (informal) a person easily deceived

   Don't be a sucker: read the contract.

2. an organ or device that sticks to a surface by suction

   An octopus's arms are covered in suckers.

In the sea, a remora (which clings to sharks); in aquariums, the common name for the plecostomus catfish that eats algae off the glass.

• a fish that clings to surfaces or hosts with a sucker-like mouth

  A suckerfish was stuck to the aquarium glass.

Past: clung /klʌŋ/.

1. to hold onto something tightly, especially out of fear or for support

   The child clung to her mother's hand.

2. ("cling to") to refuse to let go of an idea, belief, or hope

   He still clings to the hope that she'll come back.

Also 'cling onto' / 'cling to'. Figurative: cling on to power / hope. Related: clingy, cling film (UK) = plastic wrap.

• to hold on tightly; to refuse to let go

  She clung on to the railing as the boat rocked.

Modern: "Don't be offended", common preemptive apology. "Take offense": be insulted.

• to cause to feel upset

  His remarks offended many people.

"First offender": committing a crime for the first time. "Repeat offender" / "habitual offender".

• a person who breaks the law

  The offender was sentenced to five years.

British spelling; American: offense. "No offence" / "none taken": common politeness exchange.

• (British) a breach of a law

  Driving without a license is an offence.

In sports: "offensive" (line, player), attacking side. "Offensive language": rude/insulting words.

• causing offense

  The joke was offensive to many people.

American spelling of offence. The idiom is 'take offense AT' something (not 'of'). In sports, 'offense' is first-stressed (/ˈɔːfens/) and means the attacking side.

1. annoyance or resentment; a cause of it

   No offense, but I disagree.

2. a violation of a rule or law

   a first offense

Two senses: causing offense ("offending remark") or being the cause of a problem ("the offending tooth was removed"). Often used to identify the culprit in a list.

• causing displeasure or being at fault

  He pointed to the offending paragraph.

• to take advantage of others' generosity without contributing or paying

  He freeloaded off his friends all summer.

"Freeloading": pejorative for taking without contributing. Common political insult ("welfare freeloaders"). Origin: someone who loads up for free.

• a person who takes advantage of others' generosity

  He's a freeloader who never buys his round.

Common in nature writing: a remora is a freeloading fish that rides on sharks.

• living off or taking advantage of others without contributing

  his freeloading relatives

Three kinds: mutualism (both benefit), commensalism (one benefits, the other is unaffected), parasitism (one benefits, the other is harmed). Figuratively, any mutually beneficial partnership. See remora.

• a close, long-term biological interaction between two different organisms

  The fig and the fig wasp depend on each other in a classic symbiosis.

From Greek "syn" (together) + "bios" (life). Biology: clownfish/anemone, bee/flower. "Symbiotic relationship": common metaphor for mutual benefit.

• of two organisms living in close mutual relationship

  They have a symbiotic relationship.

'Good/bad/ill omen'. From Latin omen. Related adjective: ominous (threatening, suggesting something bad).

• a sign thought to show what will happen in the future

  Some people saw the eclipse as a bad omen.

From Latin omen ("omen, sign").

• giving the impression that something bad is going to happen

  There were ominous clouds in the sky.

• to engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation rather than a serious or practical purpose

  The children were playing outside.

• a dramatic work for the stage

  We saw a play at the theater.

• to become active, relevant, or a factor

  Luck comes into play in most card games.

Often used about children, pets, and lighthearted adults. "Playful banter": friendly teasing. Antonym: serious, somber.

• fond of games and amusement

  The puppy is very playful.

"Player" also means a device that plays media (a DVD player) or, informally, someone who has multiple romantic partners.

• a person who takes part in a sport, game, or performance

  Each team has eleven players on the field.

'A lump in your throat' = a tight feeling caused by strong emotion.

1. a compact mass

   She found a lump in her breast.

2. a swelling or abnormal growth under the skin

   She found a lump and went to the doctor.

Often negative for food: lumpy gravy, lumpy mashed potatoes (people prefer them smooth).

• full of or covered with lumps

  The mattress was old and lumpy.

Common in retirement, insurance payouts, lottery winnings. Distinct from periodic payments (annuities).

• a single payment made at one time

  She received a lump sum on her retirement.

Formal medical term. Informal alternatives: throw up, puke, hurl, barf, retch, ralph (American slang).

• to bring food up from the stomach through the mouth

  The patient began to vomit.

American slang for vomit, especially associated with drinking too much. Origin: imitative of the sound. Also spelled "raf". The given name "Ralph" is pronounced differently (often /reɪlf/ or /ræf/).

• (American slang) to vomit

  He ralphed in the parking lot after the party.

• to propel something through the air with a movement of the arm and hand

  I threw a brick through the window.

• an act of throwing something

  a powerful throw to first base

The everyday way to say 'vomit'. A separate sense means to produce or reveal: 'the study threw up new questions'.

1. to vomit

   He threw up after the roller coaster.

2. to produce or bring to attention

   The investigation threw up new evidence.

Informal and blunt.

• to vomit

  The smell made him puke.

• vomit

  Clean that puke off the floor.

Distinct from "conscience" (moral sense).

1. awake and aware of one's surroundings

   He remained conscious throughout the surgery.

2. having knowledge of something; aware

   She was conscious of her own limitations.

1. in a deliberate and intentional way

   She consciously chose not to reply.

2. while awake and aware

   He could not consciously remember the accident.

• the state of being aware of and responsive to one's surroundings

  He lost consciousness after the blow to the head.

A key feminist tactic of the 1960s-70s.

• the activity of seeking to make people more aware of personal, social, or political issues

  The 1970s women's movement emphasized consciousness raising.

• existing or operating in the mind beneath or beyond consciousness

  He had a subconscious fear of failure.

• the part of the mind of which one is not fully aware but which influences one's actions and feelings

  Dreams may reveal the subconscious.

Used only of family members and as a noun for respected community members. For general comparisons use "older".

• (of family members) older

  My elder sister is a doctor.

• a person who is older or has authority in a community

  The village elders gathered to decide.

Used in syrups, wines, and traditional remedies. Famously mocked by the French knight in Monty Python: "Your mother was a hamster and your father smelt of elderberries."

• the dark purple berry of the elder tree (Sambucus)

  She makes wine from elderberries each autumn.

More polite than "old" when referring to people.

• (of a person) old or aging

  The bus had reserved seats for elderly passengers.

1. having lived or existed for a long time

   He is an old man now.

2. belonging to the past; former

   I ran into an old friend from school.

The general comparative of old; the only choice with 'than' (older than me). See the older-vs-elder comparison below.

• more advanced in age; having existed longer

  My brother is three years older than me.

• the most advanced in age; having existed the longest

  She is the oldest of four sisters.

• to move at a speed faster than a walk, never having both or all feet on the ground at the same time

  The dog ran across the road.

• an act or period of running, especially for exercise

  She went for a run every morning.

• a person who has run away, especially from their family or an institution

  The shelter helps teenage runaways.

• having escaped control; happening quickly and unstoppably

  A runaway train sped down the tracks.

1. to meet by chance

   I ran into an old classmate at the airport.

2. to collide with

   The truck ran into a lamppost.

3. to encounter (trouble or difficulty)

   The project ran into unexpected problems.

4. to reach (a large amount or number)

   Repair costs ran into the thousands.

Hyphenated as adjective. As noun ("rundown") = summary briefing. "Run-down neighborhood" = poor area. "Run-down" person = exhausted, ill.

• in poor condition; tired or unwell

  They lived in a run-down house.

"Running joke": recurring joke. "Running total": sum as you go. "In the running" = competing for a position. "Up and running" = operational.

• continuing or ongoing

  It's a running joke between us.

• to put (someone or something) at risk

  His actions endangered the whole team.

"Endangered Species Act" (1973): major US conservation law. "IUCN Red List": global database of threatened species.

• in danger; threatened with extinction

  The tiger is an endangered species.

• a soft, wet, pulpy mass

  The overcooked rice turned to mush.

'Mushy peas' is a British side dish. The sentimental sense is informal and often mildly disparaging.

1. soft and pulpy

   The bananas had gone brown and mushy.

2. excessively sentimental

   He wrote her a mushy love letter.

Plural: leaves. "Turn over a new leaf" = start fresh. "Take a leaf out of someone's book" = follow their example. "Leaves": also verb form of "leave".

• the flat part of a plant attached to the stem

  The leaves turn red in autumn.

• on the other side of the page of a book or document

  For more information, see overleaf.

• having leaves of a specified kind

  Broad-leaved trees.

1. having many leaves; consisting of leaves

   Add some leafy greens to the salad.

2. (of a place) pleasantly full of trees and greenery

   They live on a quiet, leafy street.

• the act of moving around an area to guard or inspect it

  The night patrol found an open gate.

• to move around an area to guard or inspect it

  Officers patrol the station at night.

• a police car used for patrol duty

  A patrol car stopped outside the house.

Older or gendered term. Police officer is more neutral.

• a police officer who patrols an area

  The patrolman walked the downtown beat.

From French début. Also a verb ("to make one's debut" or "the album debuted at number one").

• a person's first appearance or performance in a public role

  She made her acting debut at sixteen.

1. to appear or be presented in public for the first time

   The album debuted at number one.

2. to make one's first public appearance

   She debuted as a soloist last spring.

From French. "Debutante ball": high-society introduction ceremony, peaked in 1950s. Often shortened to "deb".

• a young upper-class woman formally entering society

  The young debutantes wore white gowns.

Originally the central pin in bowling. Common in crime contexts: "drug kingpin".

• the most important person or thing in an organization or activity, especially in a criminal organization

  Police arrested the alleged drug kingpin.

Same form in singular and plural (one species, two species); the singular is never 'specie' (that word means coined money). From Latin species, appearance or kind; related to special and specific.

1. a group of living things able to breed with one another

   The giant panda is an endangered species.

2. a kind, sort, or type of something

   This is a rare species of political courage.

"Coil up": common construction. Snakes coil. Garden hoses coil. "Coil": also a type of IUD birth control.

• to wind into a series of loops

  She coiled the rope on the deck.

• a series of loops

  A coil of wire lay on the floor.

From Latin concurrere (con- + currere, to run together); shares the -cur root with occur, recur, and current. In law, a 'concurring opinion' agrees with the outcome but for different reasons.

1. to agree

   The other judges concurred with her ruling.

2. (formal) to happen at the same time; to coincide

   Several factors concurred to bring about the crisis.

• agreement, or the fact of happening at the same time

  The plan went ahead with the concurrence of all departments.

'Concurrent sentences' are served at the same time, unlike 'consecutive' ones served one after another.

• existing or happening at the same time

  He is serving two concurrent prison sentences.

• at the same time

  The two projects ran concurrently.

From Latin constringere (con- + stringere, to draw tight); a doublet of constrain, and related to strict and stringent.

1. to make narrower or tighter, especially by squeezing

   The cold made his blood vessels constrict.

2. to limit or restrict freedom of action

   Tight budgets constrict what the team can do.

• made narrower or tighter; limited

  She spoke in a constricted voice, choked with emotion.

• having the effect of narrowing or limiting

  He found the small town's constricting social rules stifling.

• the action of constricting, or a narrowed place

  The drug causes constriction of the blood vessels.

A boa constrictor kills prey by squeezing, not by venom.

• a snake that kills by squeezing, or a muscle that constricts

  A boa constrictor was coiled around the branch.

From Latin distinguere (to separate, mark off), related to distinct and distinction. Common construction: 'distinguish between A and B'.

1. to recognize or treat as different

   Can you distinguish the twins?

2. to be a characteristic that marks someone or something as different

   Its long neck distinguishes the giraffe from other animals.

3. (distinguish oneself) to perform in a way that earns respect

   She distinguished herself in the final debate.

• able to be identified as different

  The two species are barely distinguishable.

The 'dignified appearance' sense is often a polite compliment, especially about older men.

1. successful and commanding great respect

   He is a distinguished professor of physics.

2. having a dignified and refined appearance

   A distinguished older man with silver hair rose to speak.

"Without distinction" = treating all equally. "Graduate with distinction": academic honor for high marks.

1. a difference between similar things

   There's a clear distinction between the two.

2. excellence that sets someone apart

   She served with distinction.

"Distinctive": characteristic, easily recognizable. Don't confuse with "distinct" (clearly different) or "distinguished" (highly respected).

• characteristic of one person or thing

  She has a distinctive voice.

"Distinct from" = different from. "Distinct possibility": clear and definite. Don't confuse with "distinctive" (= characteristic).

• clearly different; easily distinguishable

  They are two distinct species.

Irregular: began, begun. Slightly more formal than 'start'.

• to start; to carry out the first part of an action

  The meeting begins at nine.

'From the beginning'; 'the beginning of the end' = the start of a decline.

• the point or time at which something starts

  The beginning of the film is a little slow.

'Beginner's luck' = unexpected early success by a novice.

• a person just starting to learn or do something

  The class is for absolute beginners.

The second sense points back to how things were at the very start and overlaps with 'in the first place' (see first).

1. as the first point; first of all

   To begin with, we don't have enough time.

2. at first; in the first place; originally

   He never loved me to begin with.

Antonym: utopia. From Greek dys- (bad) + topos (place), coined as the opposite of Thomas More's 'Utopia' (1516). Famous dystopias: '1984', 'Brave New World', 'The Handmaid's Tale'.

• an imagined society in which there is great suffering or injustice

  The novel depicts a dystopia ruled by a totalitarian regime.

Common collocations: 'dystopian fiction', 'dystopian future', 'dystopian nightmare'.

• relating to or resembling a dystopia; marked by suffering, oppression, or injustice

  The film paints a dystopian vision of the future.

"Prior to" = before (more formal than "before"). "No prior experience": common job-listing phrase.

• existing or coming before in time

  The job requires prior experience.

A priory is the monastery/convent a prior heads; the female equivalent is a prioress.

• a man who is the head of a house or order of monks, ranking below an abbot

  The prior led the monks in prayer.

From Latin praevius (going before). British informal: 'a bit previous' = premature or presumptuous.

• existing or occurring before in time or order

  She had no previous experience of the job.

• before now, or before a particular time in the past

  He had previously worked in Japan.

From Latin proverbium: pro- (forth) + verbum (word), related to verb and verbal. Synonyms include adage and maxim. Distinct from an idiom, which is a fixed phrase whose meaning is not literal, not a piece of advice. The Book of Proverbs is a book of the Bible.

• a short, well-known saying expressing a general truth or piece of advice

  "A stitch in time saves nine" is an old proverb.

Often used with "the": "the proverbial early bird" = invoking a well-known saying.

• referred to in a proverb or idiom; widely known

  He was the proverbial fish out of water.

"Grease" is also the 1978 movie/musical starring John Travolta. "Elbow grease" = vigorous physical effort.

• oily or fatty matter

  The pan was covered with grease.

"Grease someone's palm" = bribe them.

• to lubricate with grease

  Grease the cake tin before pouring in the batter.

"Greasy spoon" (informal) = a cheap, often unhealthy diner.

• covered with or containing grease

  The food was too greasy for my taste.

• a small, cheap restaurant or cafe typically serving fried foods

  We ate at a greasy spoon.

The ordinal of 'one'. 'First-hand' = direct. 'At first' = initially. (British) 'a first' = top degree class.

• coming before all others in order, time, or importance

  She finished first in the race. First, let's review the agenda.

• a person or thing that is first; a previously unachieved event

  Reaching the summit was a first for the whole team.

Often spelled "first-hand".

• from the original source or personal experience

  He got first hand information from the witness.

• directly, from the original source or personal experience

  He learned first hand how difficult it was.

• the first child born to a particular person or couple

  They doted on their first born.

The 'originally' sense often expresses regret or questions an earlier decision.

1. used to introduce the first of several points; to begin with

   In the first place, we can't afford it; in the second place, we don't need it.

2. at the beginning; originally

   Why did you lend him the money in the first place?

Some style guides prefer "first" alone for lists; "firstly" then "secondly" etc is more formal. Often paired with "secondly".

• in the first place; before anything else

  Firstly, I want to thank everyone.

From Latin iterare (to repeat), from iterum (again). In tech and startups, to iterate is to improve through repeated versions.

1. to do or say something repeatedly

   The instructions iterate the same warning three times.

2. (computing/design) to perform a process repeatedly, producing successive versions

   The team iterated on the prototype until it worked.

• a repetition of a process, or a version produced by it

  The second iteration of the app was much faster.

• involving repetition; done again and again to refine something

  Software is usually built through an iterative process.

• say something again or a number of times, typically for emphasis or clarity

  She reiterated that the administration would remain steadfast in its support.

'Reiterate' adds re- (again) to iterate; it literally means 'repeat again', technically redundant but standard.

• the action of saying something again for emphasis

  His speech was a reiteration of earlier promises.

More formal than 'get' or 'obtain'; common in business and military contexts. From Latin procurare (to manage, take care of): pro- + curare (to care for), the same root as cure and curate.

1. to obtain, especially with effort

   She managed to procure rare medical supplies.

2. (law) to obtain (a person) as a prostitute for someone else

   He was convicted of procuring.

In the criminal sense, a procurer is essentially a pimp; a female procurer is a 'procuress'.

• a person who procures something, especially one who obtains prostitutes for others

  The procurer was arrested along with the traffickers.

Standard term in business and government for the purchasing process. "Procurement officer" / "procurement department".

• the action of obtaining or acquiring something, especially for an organization

  He works in government procurement.

Chiefly American. British English prefers acclimatize. From klima (climate/region), related to 'climate'.

• to become or make accustomed to a new climate, environment, or set of conditions

  It took her a week to acclimate to the high altitude.

British spelling: acclimatise. Preferred in British English and in mountaineering and biology, especially for physical adjustment to altitude or heat.

• to adjust to a new climate or conditions, especially physically

  Climbers spend several days acclimatizing before the summit push.

• the process of acclimating

  A period of acclimation helped the new staff settle in.

British spelling: acclimatisation.

• the process of acclimatizing, especially physiological adjustment to altitude

  Acclimatization reduces the risk of altitude sickness.

From Latin apparere (to appear), the same root as appear and apparent. Synonyms for the ghost sense: specter, phantom, wraith. In astronomy, an apparition is a period when a comet or planet is visible.

1. a ghost or ghostlike figure

   He claimed to have seen an apparition in the hallway.

2. (formal) the sudden or unexpected appearance of someone or something

   The apparition of a stranger in the doorway startled her.

From Latin affluere (to flow toward, abound): ad- (to) + fluere (to flow), the same root as fluent, fluid, and influence; the image is wealth flowing in. A rare, older variant of this noun is 'affluency' (same meaning). Do not confuse with 'effluent' (liquid waste discharge).

• the state of having a great deal of money; wealth

  A sign of our growing affluence.

Common collocations: 'affluent neighborhood', 'affluent families'. Note it is a doublet-like relative of 'effluent' but opposite in tone (wealth vs waste).

• (especially of a group or area) having a great deal of money; wealthy

  The affluent societies of the western world.

'Speed limit' = the maximum legal speed. 'Up to speed' = fully informed or working at full capacity.

1. the rate at which someone or something moves or operates

   The car was traveling at high speed.

2. rapidity of movement or action; swiftness

   She solved the puzzle with impressive speed.

3. (informal) amphetamine, used as a stimulant drug

   He was arrested for dealing speed.

1. to move or travel quickly

   The train sped through the station.

2. to drive faster than the legal limit

   She was fined for speeding on the highway.

• the offense of driving faster than the legal speed limit

  The police are cracking down on speeding.

• to move or happen faster, or to make something faster

  Can you speed up the process?

• done or occurring quickly

  A speedy recovery.

Informally 'speedo' in British English.

• an instrument on a vehicle showing its current speed

  The speedometer read seventy miles per hour.

"Off the hook" - free from trouble. "By hook or by crook" - by any means. "Hooker" - informal for prostitute. "Captain Hook" - Peter Pan villain.

• a curved piece of metal or plastic for catching or hanging things

  Hang your coat on the hook.

• to catch, fasten, or interest someone

  The opening scene hooked the audience.

Informal. The sexual sense is common in casual speech.

• a casual sexual encounter; also a connection between devices

  The campsite has an electrical hook-up.

• a prostitute

  He picked up a hooker.

• addicted or captivated

  He's hooked on that show.

The noun form is 'hook-up'. The relationship sense is informal and often implies something casual.

1. to connect or set up a piece of equipment

   He hooked up the printer to the laptop.

2. (informal) to meet or begin a relationship, often a casual one

   They hooked up at a party last summer.

Past: spun. Political: "put a spin on" = present favorably. "Spin doctor": PR specialist. "Spin off": new venture branched from existing one.

• to turn rapidly around an axis

  The wheels spun in the snow.

'Go for a spin' = a short drive. 'Put a spin on' = present with bias.

1. a fast turning or whirling movement

   The car went into a spin on the ice.

2. a favorable slant given to information, especially in politics

   The campaign put a positive spin on the figures.

Common in computing/cloud contexts: 'spin up an instance'.

1. (computing) to start up or bring into operation, especially a server or process

   We spun up a new server to handle the traffic.

2. to cause to rotate faster

   The hard drive spins up before reading.

• to attract or tempt someone by offering pleasure or advantage

  The bakery's smell enticed customers into the store.

• something that attracts or tempts; the act of enticing

  Free coffee was an enticement to attend the meeting.

• attractive or tempting

  The offer was very enticing.

From Greek 'cheir' (hand) + 'praktikos' (doing): treats the spine by hand.

• a system of treating illness by manual manipulation of the spine and joints

  She tried chiropractic for her chronic back pain.

• a practitioner of chiropractic

  The chiropractor gently adjusted his neck.

• above the level of the head; up in the sky

  A flock of geese flew overhead.

• situated or passing above, over your head

  Put your bag in the overhead bin.

British English often uses the plural 'overheads'. Note the stress shift: the noun/adjective stress the first syllable, the adverb the last.

• the regular ongoing costs of running a business, such as rent and utilities

  High overhead forced the shop to close.

"Overhead" (singular) also used: "overhead costs". Different from "overhead" the adverb ("a plane flew overhead") or adjective ("overhead cabinet").

• ongoing business expenses not tied to specific products

  Overheads include rent and utilities.

Common collocations: 'glove compartment' (in a car), 'luggage compartment', 'train compartment'.

• a separate section or part of an enclosed space, container, or vehicle

  He stored his keys in the glove compartment.

British spelling: compartmentalise. Common in psychology.

• to divide into separate sections or categories; to keep things or feelings mentally separate

  He compartmentalizes his work and personal life.

"Belong to" = be owned by. "Belong with" = be best paired with. "Belong" (alone) = fit in a group/place.

1. to be a member of

   She belongs to a book club.

2. to be the property of

   This book belongs to me.

Singular 'belonging' (a feeling of acceptance) is distinct from plural 'belongings' (possessions).

• a feeling of being accepted and included; affinity for a place or group

  She finally felt a sense of belonging at the new school.

Always plural. "Personal belongings": common phrase, especially in travel/security contexts.

• a person's movable possessions

  He gathered his belongings and left.

Formal or literary. From Latin supplicare: sub- (under) + plicare (to bend/fold), the idea of bending or kneeling in entreaty; a cousin of pliable and complicate.

• to ask or beg for something humbly and earnestly

  They supplicated the king for mercy.

A near-synonym is 'suppliant' (also used as an adjective). Often religious: a supplicant prays or kneels in humble request.

• a person who asks for something earnestly and humbly, especially through prayer

  The supplicants knelt before the altar.

• the action of asking or begging for something earnestly and humbly

  She raised her hands in supplication.

Theater: "aside" (noun) = remark addressed to audience, supposedly not heard by other characters. "Set aside" = save for later. "Aside from" = except for.

• to one side; out of the way

  He stepped aside to let her pass.

Theatrical or conversational: a remark meant to be heard only by some, not all, present.

• a remark made quietly so that only some people can hear

  'He has no idea,' she said in an aside.

Chiefly American; the British equivalent is 'apart from'. The 'except for' and 'in addition to' senses are told apart by context.

1. except for; apart from

   Aside from a few typos, the essay is excellent.

2. in addition to; besides

   Aside from English, she speaks three other languages.

Different from "besides" (= in addition to). "Beside oneself" = overwhelmed with emotion. "Beside the point" = irrelevant.

• next to

  She sat beside him.

Do not confuse with 'accept' (to receive or agree to). As a conjunction: 'I would go, except that it's raining.'

• not including; other than

  The shop is open every day except Sunday.

Formal. 'Present company excepted' = the people here are not included.

• to exclude; to leave out

  Children are excepted from the entrance charge.

"The exception that proves the rule": confusing proverb. In programming: "exception" = unexpected error condition (Python try/except).

• a person or thing that is not included in a general statement

  There are exceptions to every rule.

"Exceptional" can be positive (exceptional talent) or simply descriptive (exceptional circumstances).

• unusually good

  She has exceptional talent.

"Pride and Prejudice": Jane Austen. "Pride goes before a fall": proverb. "Pride" (LGBTQ+): celebration month/parades. "Pride of lions": collective. Also 'a pride of lions' (a family group); 'take pride in' = feel satisfaction about.

• a feeling of satisfaction in one's achievements

  He took pride in his work.

Reflexive: 'pride oneself on' something.

• to be proud of, used reflexively as 'pride oneself on'

  She prides herself on her punctuality.

'Proud of' + achievement. 'Do someone proud' = make them proud, or treat them generously.

1. feeling deep satisfaction in one's own achievements or qualities, or those of someone close

   They were proud of their daughter's success.

2. having an excessively high opinion of oneself; arrogant

   He was too proud to admit he was wrong.

Chiefly figurative: 'take center stage' = become the focus of attention. British spelling: centre stage.

1. the center of a stage

   The lead actor stood at center stage.

2. the most prominent or important position

   The economy took center stage in the debate.

'Make the grade' = meet the required standard. 'Grade school' (US) = elementary school; British schools say 'year' or 'form', not grade.

1. a level of quality, rank, or ability

   The furniture is made of high-grade oak.

2. a mark given for schoolwork or an exam

   She got top grades in every subject.

3. (US) a year or level in school

   My son is in third grade.

1. to assign a mark or rank to

   The teacher graded the essays over the weekend.

2. to arrange in levels, or to level ground

   The site was graded before construction began.

1. (US) a student in a specified school grade

   A group of tenth graders visited the museum.

2. a person or machine that grades

   A road grader smoothed the gravel surface.

From Latin dominus (master, lord); same root as dominion.

1. to have power, authority, or control over someone or something

   The home team dominated the game from start to finish.

2. to be the largest, most important, or most noticeable feature of something

   A huge mountain dominates the view from her window.

In genetics: "dominant gene" expressed even from one copy (vs. recessive). "Dominant culture": sociological term. "Dominant species": most prevalent in ecosystem.

• having power or influence

  The dominant force in the industry.

• power, influence, or superiority over others

  The team established early dominance in the match.

• the exercise of control or power over others

  The villain dreamed of world domination.

More formal than "dominate". Often used in descriptions of populations or characteristics.

• to be the strongest or main element

  Women predominate in the teaching profession.

• present as the strongest or main element

  The predominant color in the room was blue.

Slightly more formal than "dominance". Often statistical: "a predominance of women in the field". Common in academic and analytical writing.

• the state of being most common or dominant

  There's a predominance of male engineers in the field.

More formal than "mostly" or "mainly". Common in academic and descriptive writing.

• mainly; for the most part

  The audience was predominantly young.

Same root as "dominate". Slightly formal/literary.

1. the power or right to rule, govern, or control something

   The king claimed dominion over all the surrounding lands.

2. an area or territory ruled by a particular leader or government

   The British Empire's dominions once spanned every continent.

Also a brand name: Amazon's Kindle e-reader, named to evoke "kindling interest in reading". 'Rekindle' = revive a feeling or relationship.

1. to light (a fire); to set burning

   He kindled a fire with dry twigs.

2. to arouse or inspire (a feeling or interest)

   The trip kindled her love of the sea.

• to revive (a feeling, interest, or relationship) after a period of decline

  The reunion rekindled their old friendship.

From Greek patris ("fatherland"). "The Patriot Act" was US legislation passed after 9/11. "Patriot" can also be slightly disparaging ("flag-waving patriot") depending on context.

• a person who vigorously supports and defends their country

  He was hailed as a patriot for his wartime service.

Compare with jingoistic (aggressive patriotism).

• having or expressing devotion to and vigorous support for one's country

  He sang the national anthem with patriotic fervor.

• the quality of being patriotic; devotion to one's country

  The speech was a stirring call for patriotism.

"Lounge" (British) = living room. "Airport lounge": premium waiting area. "Cocktail lounge" = bar. "Lounge lizard": playboy who hangs around bars.

• a public room for relaxing

  We met in the hotel lounge.

• to lie or sit in a relaxed way

  They lounged by the pool all day.

Mainly British or formal; American English usually says bathroom or restroom.

• a toilet or bathroom

  The lavatory is at the end of the hall.

• toilet paper

  The hotel ran out of lavatory paper.

Usually of humor: crude and toilet-related.

• relating to lavatories; (of humor) crude and scatological

  The comedy relied on lavatorial jokes.

From Latin "summum" (highest). Three uses: mountaintop, top-level meeting, peak/climax. "G7 Summit", "UN Climate Summit": common political contexts.

1. the highest point of a mountain

   They reached the summit at dawn.

2. a meeting between top political leaders

   The two presidents met at the summit.

From Greek hydor (water). Direct antonym of dehydrate.

• to make or become moist; to provide or absorb water

  Drink water to stay hydrated in the heat.

• the process of providing or absorbing water

  Proper hydration is vital during exercise.

"Dehydrated" common in fitness/medical contexts. Dehydrated food: lightweight for backpacking, astronauts. Antonym: hydrate.

• to remove water from; to lose body fluids

  Long flights can dehydrate you.

• the harmful loss of water from the body

  The hikers suffered from dehydration.

From French 'douche' (shower). The informal insult 'douche'/'douchebag' = an obnoxious person.

1. a stream of water directed into the body, especially the vagina, for cleaning; the device for this

   Doctors generally advise against douching.

2. (informal, vulgar) an obnoxious or contemptible person

   Don't be such a douche.

American vulgar slang. Origin: a douche bag was originally a feminine hygiene device. As an insult, 'douchebag' is stronger and more common than plain 'douche'.

• (vulgar, offensive) an obnoxious or contemptible person

  He acted like such a douchebag at the party.

Vulgar. "Piss off" (British) = go away (insulting), or annoy (American). "Piss-poor" = very low quality. Generally considered crude in formal contexts.

• (vulgar) to urinate

  He needed to piss.

• (vulgar) urine

  The alley reeked of piss.

Vulgar. As a command, 'Piss off!' means go away.

1. (chiefly American) to annoy someone greatly

   His constant lateness really pisses me off.

2. (chiefly British) to go away

   Just piss off and leave me alone.

• to urinate on; (figurative) to treat with open contempt

  Critics pissed on his life's work.

'Pissed' or 'pissed off' (American) = angry; 'pissed' (British) = drunk.

1. (American, informal) angry

   He was really pissed about the delay.

2. (British, informal) drunk

   He came home pissed last night.

In logic, premises lead to a conclusion (syllogism). In real estate, "premises" (plural) refers to a building/property.

• a statement or proposition that supports a conclusion

  His argument is based on a flawed premise.

Usually "premised on" + noun = based on that assumption.

• based on a particular premise

  The whole plan is premised on continued growth.

Always plural in this sense; 'on the premises' = on the property.

• a building and its land, as occupied by a business or in an official context

  Smoking is not allowed on the premises.

Multiple senses: party host, TV host, biological host (parasite). Tech: "host": server computer. "Hostile takeover": same root.

• a person who entertains guests

  He was the host of the party.

• to receive as a guest; to organize

  They hosted the Olympics.

"Hostess gift": small present for the host at a party. Restaurant hostess: seats guests. "Hostess": also a snack brand (Twinkies, etc.).

• a female host

  The hostess greeted us warmly.

"On duty" / "off duty" = working / not working. "Duty-free" = sold without import tax (e.g., at airports).

1. (countable/uncountable) a moral or legal obligation

   It is your duty to vote.

2. (countable) a task or action one is required to perform

   His duties include answering the phone.

3. (countable) a tax paid on goods, especially imports

   Duty on imported wine was raised.

4. a task or responsibility that is part of a job (often plural: duties)

   His duties include locking up the shop at night.

• a duty levied on the legal recognition of certain documents

  You have to pay stamp duty on the purchase of the house.

• not engaged in one's regular work

  An off-duty police officer.

• an underground pipe or channel that carries waste water and human waste away from buildings

  The heavy rain caused the sewers to overflow.

• liquid and solid waste carried away by sewers

  The factory was fined for dumping untreated sewage into the river.

• the system of sewers in a town or city; also another word for sewage

  The town's sewerage system was built over a century ago.

• a long narrow channel dug in the ground, typically used for drainage

  The car swerved and landed in a ditch.

Informal in the abandon/get-rid-of sense.

1. (informal) to abandon or get rid of

   She ditched her boyfriend after the trip.

2. to make a forced landing of an aircraft in water

   The pilot had to ditch the plane in the ocean.

"Medical school" (med school): postgraduate medical training. "Medical marijuana": cannabis for therapeutic use.

• relating to the science of medicine

  She has a medical degree.

"Take your medicine": both literal and figurative (face unpleasant consequences). Famous: Hippocratic Oath in medicine.

1. a drug used to treat illness

   Take this medicine three times a day.

2. the science of treating illness

   He studies medicine at Harvard.

Often used interchangeably with "medicine" but slightly more formal/clinical. "On medication" = currently taking prescribed drugs.

• a drug used to treat illness

  He's on medication for high blood pressure.

In British, often informal for a doctor. Military: "combat medic": medical personnel attached to combat units.

• a medical practitioner, especially in the military

  The medic treated the wounded soldier.

Informal. 'Goof off' = waste time or avoid work; 'goof around' = play or fool about.

• to make a silly mistake

  I goofed and sent the email to the wrong person.

• a silly mistake, or a silly person

  Forgetting the tickets was a real goof.

• (informal, affectionate) a silly or foolish person

  He's a lovable goofball.

Goofy is also the name of a Disney cartoon dog.

• silly; harmlessly foolish

  He gave a goofy grin.

From Latin sanitas ("health").

1. relating to conditions affecting health, especially regarding cleanliness

   The kitchen failed the sanitary inspection.

2. hygienic and free from anything that could cause disease

   Hospitals must maintain sanitary conditions.

"Unsanitary conditions": health-violation phrase, common in restaurant inspection reports. Also: "insanitary" (less common).

• not clean enough for good health

  The kitchen was unsanitary.

Note: NOT related to "insanity" (= madness) despite looking similar. "Insanitary" = "not sanitary". Synonym: unsanitary (more common in American English).

• dirty enough to be a danger to health

  The conditions in the camp were insanitary.

British. American equivalent: sanitary napkin or pad.

• (British) an absorbent pad worn by women during menstruation

  The vending machine in the bathroom sold sanitary towels.

Euphemistic umbrella term used in marketing and policy contexts.

• (British) products used during menstruation, such as pads and tampons

  The charity provides sanitary protection to homeless women.

• the system of supplying clean water and disposing of sewage and waste

  Improved sanitation is essential for public health.

American spelling; British: sanitise. "Sanitized" (figurative) = stripped of unpleasant details.

1. to make clean and free of harmful microorganisms

   Please sanitize your hands before entering.

2. to remove offensive or unpleasant elements from

   The official history sanitized the regime's crimes.

American term. Other names: "sanitary pad" (UK), "menstrual pad". Distinct from tampons (internal) and menstrual cups.

• an absorbent pad worn during menstruation

  She bought sanitary napkins at the drugstore.

From Greek hygies (healthy). Named after Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health. "Sleep hygiene" = good habits to improve sleep quality.

• conditions or practices that promote health, especially cleanliness

  Good hygiene is essential to prevent infection.

• conducive to maintaining health and preventing disease, especially by being clean

  The kitchen was spotlessly hygienic.

"Dental hygienist": the most common professional use. They clean teeth and educate patients on oral hygiene.

• a specialist in promoting cleanliness and health, especially in dentistry

  She works as a dental hygienist.

Specifically for birds of prey (eagles, hawks, owls). Other animals have "claws". "Talons" can also describe long fingernails (informal).

• a sharp claw on a bird of prey

  The eagle clutched the fish with its talons.

Three senses: eyesight, mental image of the future, and supernatural appearance. "20/20 vision": normal acuity. "Tunnel vision": narrow focus.

1. the ability to see; eyesight

   She had perfect vision.

2. a mental image of the future

   He has a clear vision for the company.

The plural noun 'visuals' means the pictures, graphics, or images in a presentation or film.

• relating to seeing or to sight

  The film has stunning visual effects.

British spelling: visualise.

1. to form a mental image of; to imagine

   Athletes often visualize success before a race.

2. to make (data or an idea) visible in the form of a diagram or picture

   The software visualizes the results as a heat map.

British spelling: visualisation.

• the act of visualizing, or a visual representation, especially of data

  Data visualization makes trends easier to spot.

"Visible light": the part of the spectrum we can see. Antonym: invisible. "High-visibility vest": fluorescent safety gear.

• able to be seen

  The mountains were visible from the window.

Meteorology term: "low visibility" = fog, mist. Business: "visibility" = predictability of future revenue.

• the distance you can see in given conditions

  Visibility was poor due to the fog.

Strongly positive: implies bold and original thinking ahead of one's time. Often applied to entrepreneurs and leaders.

• having original ideas about the future

  He was a visionary leader.

• a person with original ideas about the future

  Steve Jobs was a visionary.

US term; the British equivalent is short-sighted. Medical name: myopia (adjective myopic).

• able to see near objects clearly but not distant ones

  She is nearsighted and wears glasses to drive.

The literal 'nearsighted' sense is chiefly British; the figurative 'lacking foresight' sense is common everywhere.

1. (chiefly British) nearsighted

   He is short-sighted and cannot read road signs from far away.

2. lacking foresight; not considering the future

   Cutting all research funding is shortsighted.

Medical opposite of nearsighted: hyperopia. Figuratively the opposite of shortsighted.

1. able to see distant objects more clearly than near ones

   As she got older she became farsighted and needed reading glasses.

2. having good judgment about the future; wise

   It was a farsighted decision to invest early.

"Existential crisis" = a moment of profound questioning about meaning. "Existential threat" = a threat to one's very existence.

1. relating to existence

   The pandemic posed an existential threat to small businesses.

2. relating to the philosophy of existentialism

   She had an existential crisis at thirty.

Most famously associated with Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Simone de Beauvoir.

• a 20th-century philosophical movement emphasizing individual freedom, responsibility, and the creation of meaning in a world without inherent purpose

  His thesis is on French existentialism.

• a philosopher who follows or adheres to existentialism

  Sartre was the most famous existentialist of his time.