Vocabulary: Batch 42

From Greek pan (all) + demos (people). Pandemic = global; epidemic = wider regional; outbreak = localized. Famous: COVID-19 (2020-23), Spanish flu (1918-19), Black Death (14th c.).

• a disease prevalent over a whole country or the world

  The COVID-19 pandemic changed everything.

More common in American English; British prefers "envisage". Same meaning.

• (American) to imagine as a future possibility

  I envision a peaceful future.

British equivalent of "envision". Different stress pattern.

• (British) to imagine as a future possibility

  I envisage no major problems.

One of the seven deadly sins. Distinction from jealousy: envy = wanting what another has; jealousy = fearing losing what you have. Often confused.

• a feeling of discontented longing for someone else's possessions

  She felt envy when she saw their new car.

• feeling or showing envy

  He cast an envious glance at her trophy.

• arousing envy; desirable

  She has an enviable job.

"Free enterprise": economic system based on private business. "USS Enterprise": iconic Star Trek starship. "Enterprise software": for large organizations.

1. a project or undertaking, especially a bold one

   The mission is a risky enterprise.

2. a business or company

   He runs a small enterprise.

Adjective ends in -ət; verb ends in -eɪt (different pronunciation).

• involving many carefully arranged parts

  She wore an elaborate costume.

"Care to elaborate?": common request for more detail.

• to develop or present in detail

  Could you elaborate on that point?

• the addition of details or information to something already stated

  His answer needed further elaboration.

Common in suburban American homes. British equivalent often called a "drive".

• a short private road leading from the street to a house

  He parked in the driveway.

"Doorway" is the opening; "door" is the moving panel. "Doorway" used figuratively: "gateway" to something new.

• an entrance with a door

  He stood in the doorway.

"Organ donor": person who gives organs (kidney, liver, etc.) for transplant. "Blood donation": common civic activity.

• to give as a gift, especially to a charity

  She donated $1000 to the cause.

• something given as a gift, especially to charity

  The museum is funded by donations.

"Donor fatigue": phenomenon of donors becoming tired of constant appeals.

• a person who donates something

  The hospital needs blood donors.

"Monroe Doctrine": 19th-century US policy opposing European interference in the Americas. "Catholic doctrine": official church teaching.

• a set of beliefs held by a religious or political group

  The Catholic doctrine on marriage.

• relating to a doctrine or set of teachings

  The dispute was doctrinal.

• stubbornly applying theory without regard for practical realities

  The proposal sounded doctrinaire.

Homophone with "manor" (= large country house). "Manners" (plural) = polite behavior. "Bedside manner": how a doctor interacts with patients.

• the way in which something is done

  He answered in a polite manner.

Capitalized "Mannerism" = a late-Renaissance European art style (16th century).

• a habitual gesture or way of speaking or behaving

  He has the same mannerisms as his father.

"Dissolve" in legal contexts: "dissolve a marriage" = divorce. "Dissolve parliament": end a parliamentary session, triggering elections. In film: "dissolve" = a transition between scenes.

1. (of a solid) to become mixed into a liquid

   Sugar dissolves in water.

2. to end or close down (an organization)

   They dissolved their partnership.

1. the formal closing down or ending of an official body or agreement

   The marriage ended in dissolution.

2. the process in which something gradually fades or breaks down

   The dissolution of the empire took centuries.

From Latin disrumpere (to break apart). In tech: "disrupt an industry", radically transform it (often the goal of startups).

• to interrupt the normal course of

  Protesters disrupted the meeting.

• a disturbance that interrupts an event

  The accident caused major disruption.

Can be both negative (disruptive student) or positive (disruptive technology).

• causing disruption

  The child is disruptive in class.

Term coined by Clayton Christensen (Harvard Business School). Famous examples: digital photography (vs. film), smartphones, ride-sharing, AI.

• a technology that significantly alters an industry

  Smartphones are a classic disruptive technology.

Two distinct senses: positive ("discriminate between" = distinguish) and negative ("discriminate against" = treat unfairly).

1. to make an unjust distinction in treating people

   The law prohibits discriminating against employees based on age.

2. to recognize a distinction

   He can discriminate between the two wines.

• the unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex

  Victims of racial discrimination.

• making or showing an unfair or prejudicial distinction between different categories of people or things

  Discriminatory policies.

• having or showing refined taste or good judgment

  He became a discriminating collector of art.

• done at random or without careful judgment

  The indiscriminate use of antibiotics.

"Public discourse": collective conversation about important issues. "Discourse analysis": academic study of language in social contexts.

• written or spoken communication or debate

  The book contributes to public discourse.

From French. Famous courier companies: FedEx, DHL, UPS. "Courier" is also a common monospace typeface.

• a person or company that delivers packages

  The courier brought the package.

British: "puncture" = flat tire. American "flat" is more common. "Punctured lung": serious medical injury.

• a small hole made by a sharp object

  His tire had a puncture.

• to make a small hole in (something) with a sharp object

  A nail punctured the tire.

Same singular and plural form ("one offspring", "many offspring"). Used both for humans (slightly formal/jokingly) and animals. "The Offspring": American punk-rock band.

• a person's child or an animal's young

  She has four offspring.

"Strenuous exercise": common doctor's caution for those with heart conditions.

• requiring great effort

  The hike was strenuous.

Verb stress on second syllable; noun ("a digest" = condensed publication, like Reader's Digest) stress on first. Used both literally (food) and figuratively (information).

1. to break down (food) in the stomach

   It takes hours to digest a meal.

2. to think over and arrange (information)

   Give me a moment to digest the news.

• able to be digested; easy to understand

  He presented the data in a digestible format.

• the process of digesting food

  Fiber aids digestion.

British: a "digestive" (biscuit), a sweet wholemeal biscuit traditionally eaten with tea, thought to aid digestion.

• relating to the digestion of food

  She has digestive problems.

Pronounced with /θ/ (voiceless th); compare "bathe" /ð/ (voiced th).

• a wash of the body in a tub of water

  She took a long, hot bath.

Pronounced with /ð/ (voiced th); compare "bath" /bæθ/ (with /θ/, voiceless th). British: "bathe" can also mean swim in the sea.

1. to wash oneself in a bath

   He bathes the baby every evening.

2. to apply liquid to soothe

   She bathed the wound with antiseptic.

• to sit or lie in the sun, especially to tan the skin

  She was sunbathing on the beach.

From Greek dia (through) + metron (measure). The diameter passes through the center; the radius is half the diameter. π = circumference / diameter.

• a straight line passing through the center of a circle

  The pizza is 12 inches in diameter.

"A language is a dialect with an army and navy": famous quip about the arbitrariness of language vs. dialect.

• a form of a language spoken in a particular area

  He speaks a southern dialect of English.

From Greek diagignoskein (to discern). Related: diagnosis (noun), diagnostic (adjective).

• to identify the nature of (an illness or problem)

  She was diagnosed with diabetes.

• concerned with the diagnosis of illness or other problems; a distinctive symptom or characteristic

  A diagnostic tool.

• the identification of the nature of an illness or other problem by examination of the symptoms

  Early diagnosis and treatment are essential.

• a distinctive symptom or characteristic used to identify a problem

  The engine's rough idle is a classic diagnostic of a failing sensor.

• to give an account of in words

  She described the scene in detail.

• a spoken or written account of someone or something

  The police issued a description of the suspect.

In linguistics, contrasted with "prescriptive". Descriptivists describe how language IS used; prescriptivists say how it SHOULD be used.

• serving or seeking to describe

  The book gives a descriptive account of the war.

From Latin ascendere (to climb up). Antonym: descend. "Ascend the throne": become monarch.

• to go up or climb

  The plane ascended into the clouds.

"In the ascendant" = rising in power or influence. In astrology: the sign rising on the eastern horizon at one's birth.

• rising in power or influence

  Her career is in the ascendant.

"Ascending order" = from lowest to highest. Antonym: descending order.

• moving upward; arranged from low to high

  Sort the numbers in ascending order.

Homophone with "assent" (agreement).

• an instance of climbing or moving upward

  The ascent of the mountain took six hours.

"Depress the pedal": formal/mechanical sense. "Depress prices": economic sense.

1. to make (someone) feel utterly dispirited

   The bad news depressed her.

2. to push or press down

   Depress the button to start.

Distinguish casual sadness from clinical depression (MDD = Major Depressive Disorder). Both use "depressed" but the medical sense is much more severe.

• in a state of unhappiness

  She has been depressed since losing her job.

• causing or marked by sadness

  It's a depressing situation.

Multiple senses: mental illness (clinical depression), economic crisis ("Great Depression" 1929-39), low pressure area (weather), or physical indentation.

1. a serious mental illness causing feelings of sadness

   She suffers from depression.

2. a long and severe economic downturn

   The 1930s Great Depression.

In tech: "deploy code" = release software to production servers. In military: "deploy troops" = send them somewhere.

• to move (troops or equipment) into position for action

  The army deployed thousands of troops.

1. the movement of troops or equipment to a place or position for military action

   The rapid deployment of troops.

2. the action of bringing resources into effective action

   The deployment of new technologies.

"Deny" + verb-ing - common construction ("deny doing something").

• to state that one refuses to admit the truth of

  He denied the allegations.

In psychology, "denial" is the first of Kübler-Ross's five stages of grief. "In denial" = refusing to accept a difficult truth.

1. the action of denying something

   He issued a strong denial.

2. the refusal to accept a reality

   She is in denial about her illness.

Adjective ends in -ət; verb ("to deliberate" = consider carefully) ends in -eɪt. Different pronunciation.

• done consciously and intentionally

  The damage was deliberate.

• to think carefully before making a decision

  The jury deliberated for three days.

• long and careful consideration or discussion

  After much deliberation we arrived at a compromise.

"In decline": getting worse over time. Decline can mean refuse politely ("decline an invitation") or fall ("decline in sales").

1. to politely refuse

   She declined the offer.

2. to become smaller or weaker

   His health is declining.

• a gradual decrease

  There was a decline in sales.

Don't confuse with "device" (the noun, /dɪˈvaɪs/). Different pronunciation (/s/ vs /z/) and meaning.

• to plan or invent

  They devised a clever scheme.

"Urban decay": deterioration of city areas. "Radioactive decay": physics process. "Tooth decay" = cavities.

• the process of rotting

  The teeth showed signs of decay.

"Dead tired", "dead serious" - informal intensifiers.

• no longer alive

  The plant is dead.

"The Seven Deadly Sins": pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, sloth. "Deadly serious" = absolutely serious (figurative).

• causing or able to cause death

  It was a deadly poison.

Irregular: past tense and past participle both "died"; present participle "dying". "Die down" = gradually fade; "die out" = become extinct.

1. to stop living

   The old oak tree finally died last winter.

2. (figurative) to fade away or come to an end

   Their friendship died over the years.

"Crude oil": unrefined petroleum. "Crude joke": vulgar humor. "Crude estimate": rough approximation.

1. in a natural or raw state

   Crude oil is refined into gasoline.

2. offensively coarse or rude

   He told a crude joke.

Historical term, more elegant than "prostitute". Famous: Cora Pearl, Veronica Franco. Distinct from sex workers: courtesans were often educated, served as cultural figures.

• (historical) a high-class prostitute, especially one with wealthy clients

  The novel depicts the life of a 19th-century courtesan.

Homophone with "council" (= committee). Easy to confuse but different. In law: "defense counsel" = the defendant's lawyer.

• advice, especially formal

  She gave me wise counsel.

British spelling (double l). American: counseling (single l). Common types: marriage counselling, grief counselling, career counselling.

• professional advice and guidance

  She is in counselling for anxiety.

British. American: counselor. "Camp counsellor": staff at a summer camp. "School counsellor": provides academic and emotional guidance.

• a person trained to give guidance on personal or psychological problems

  The school counsellor met with her parents.

• to give advice to (someone), especially on personal problems

  She counsels students on career choices.

American spelling (single l); British: counselling.

• professional advice and guidance

  He sought counseling after the accident.

American spelling; British: counsellor.

• a person trained to give guidance on personal or psychological problems

  The camp counselor organized activities for the kids.

In computing, "corrupt" file = damaged, often unreadable. "Absolute power corrupts absolutely": Lord Acton's famous quote.

• having or showing a willingness to act dishonestly

  The country has corrupt officials.

"Corruption Perceptions Index": annual ranking by Transparency International.

• dishonest or fraudulent conduct, especially by those in power

  They fought against corruption in government.

"Corporate America": collective term for large US businesses. "Corporate ladder": career progression in a company. "Corporate raider": hostile takeover specialist.

• relating to a large company

  She works in corporate law.

"Multinational corporation" (MNC): operates in multiple countries. "Corp.": common abbreviation in company names. In US law, corporations have legal personhood.

• a large company or group of companies

  The corporation reported record profits.

Abbreviation for Corporation.

• corporation

  The News Corp. group.

From Latin incorporare (to embody). In business: to form a legal corporation.

• to take in as part of a whole

  The new design incorporates feedback from users.

Abbreviated "Inc.": appears in company names (Apple Inc., Google Inc., etc.). Indicates the company is a legal corporation distinct from its owners.

• formed into a legal corporation

  He works for Acme Incorporated.

"Apple core": the center with seeds. "Earth's core": solid inner + liquid outer. "Core values", "core competency": business buzzwords.

1. the central part of something

   The earth's core is extremely hot.

2. the basic or most important part

   Honesty is at the core of our values.

"In fashion" / "out of fashion": popular/unpopular. "Fashion week": major industry event in NY, Paris, Milan, London.

1. a popular trend in clothing or behavior

   Bell-bottoms came back into fashion.

2. the way in which something is done

   He proceeded in his usual fashion.

Antonym: unfashionable, outdated. "Fashionably late": arriving deliberately late to seem cool.

• following the current style

  He always wears fashionable clothes.

In logic: "P entails Q", if P is true, Q must be true. In law (historical): "entailment" restricted who could inherit property.

• to involve as a necessary part

  The job entails a lot of travel.

Formal/academic. Related to "obvious" via Latin "obviam" (in the way). Often used: "obviate the need for".

• to remove (a need or difficulty)

  The new method obviates the need for a second test.

Chemical formula: CH4. Major component of natural gas. Powerful greenhouse gas (about 28× more potent than CO2 over 100 years). Cow burps are a significant source.

• a colorless, odorless, flammable gas

  Cows produce methane through digestion.

Informal. Usually applied to women (though it could be either gender). Slightly dated/objectifying in current discourse.

• (informal) a very attractive person

  She's a real looker.

American business slang. Common in real estate negotiation. "Lowball offer": common in haggling.

• (informal) to make a deliberately low offer

  They lowballed her on the salary.

From the idea of God sending unexpected help. Used by religious and non-religious people alike.

• a very helpful or welcome event or thing

  The rain was a godsend after the drought.

"Masquerade ball": formal party with masks. Famous: Venetian Carnival masks. "Masquerade": 1986 song by Andrew Lloyd Webber from The Phantom of the Opera.

• a costume party at which masks are worn

  She wore a glittering mask to the masquerade.

• to pretend to be someone else

  He masqueraded as a doctor for years.

"Gratitude journal": popular self-help practice of listing things to be thankful for. From Latin gratus (pleasing, grateful).

• the quality of being thankful

  She expressed her gratitude for the help.

From an obsolete sense of 'grate' meaning 'pleasing' (Latin gratus); related to gratitude and gratify, but not to grate (to shred / a metal frame).

• feeling or showing thanks for kindness or for something received

  I'm so grateful for your help.

From Portuguese feitiço (charm). Two main senses: sexual paraphilia, or sacred object in some religions/cultures.

1. a strong, often abnormal, sexual interest in something

   He has a foot fetish.

2. an inanimate object thought to have spiritual power

   The tribe revered the fetish.

• the practice of having fetishes

  The book discusses sexual fetishism.

• a person who has a fetish

  He's a self-described shoe fetishist.

From French. Gentler than "flaw" or "weakness": implies a harmless quirk.

• a minor weakness or eccentricity

  He has his foibles but we love him.

"Quirk": special ability in the popular anime/manga My Hero Academia.

• a peculiar habit or trait

  She has some quirks but she's lovely.

Usually positive: implies endearing oddness. "Manic pixie dream girl" trope often involves quirky personality.

• characterized by peculiar or unexpected traits

  He has a quirky sense of humor.

"Potential energy": physics term for stored energy (vs. kinetic). "Potential customer": common business term.

• having the capacity to develop into something

  She has potential as a leader.

More formal/abstract than "potential". Common in philosophy and management theory.

• latent capacity for development

  The potentiality of the project is enormous.

Two acceptable pronunciations: /ˈkɑːntrəvɝːsi/ (American) and /kənˈtrɑːvərsi/ (British, second-syllable stress).

• prolonged public disagreement

  The new law sparked controversy.

• causing public disagreement or argument

  The mayor defended the controversial policy.

"In contrast (to)": common essay/comparison phrase. Verb stress on second syllable: /kənˈtræst/.

• the state of being strikingly different

  There's a sharp contrast between rich and poor.

• to compare in order to show differences

  The report contrasts the two economic policies.

• to transfer (blood or blood components) into the blood vessels of a patient

  Doctors transfused two units of blood into the patient.

Often used figuratively: "transfusion of new ideas/energy/funds", sudden infusion that revives something.

• the action of transferring something from one to another

  The struggling company needed a transfusion of capital.

Common after surgery, accidents, or childbirth. Requires matching blood types (A, B, AB, O; Rh positive/negative). Discovered/standardized in early 1900s.

• the medical transfer of blood from one person to another

  She needed a blood transfusion after the accident.

From Greek thesauros (treasure). Famous: Roget's Thesaurus (1852). Modern: built into word processors and websites (thesaurus.com).

• a book that lists words with similar meanings

  She used a thesaurus to find a better word.

Related: contamination. Common contexts: food safety, environmental pollution, lab samples ("cross-contamination").

• to make impure or unsafe

  The water was contaminated with chemicals.

• a substance that makes something impure or unsafe

  The lab found a chemical contaminant in the water.

• the action of contaminating something; the state of being contaminated

  The factory was fined for water contamination.

"Consume" can mean drink/eat ("consume alcohol"), use up ("consume energy"), or be obsessed by ("consumed by jealousy").

• to use up; to eat or drink

  This appliance consumes a lot of electricity.

"Consumer culture": society organized around buying goods. "Consumer Reports": famous US product-review magazine.

• a person who buys goods or services

  Consumers demand better quality.

"Conspicuous consumption": economist Thorstein Veblen's term for showy spending to display wealth. Historical: "consumption" was an old name for tuberculosis.

• the action of using up something

  Fuel consumption is high in big cars.

"On a diet" - restricting food to lose weight. "Balanced diet" - varied, healthy eating.

• the kinds of food that a person habitually eats

  A healthy diet includes plenty of vegetables.

• to restrict oneself to small amounts or special kinds of food in order to lose weight

  She's been dieting for a month.

Also spelled "dietitian" (more common in medical literature). Compare with "nutritionist": in many countries, "dietitian" requires legal accreditation; "nutritionist" does not.

• an expert on diet and nutrition

  The dietician designed her meal plan.

"Consult a doctor": common medical phrase. "Consult the manual": RTFM (read the manual).

• to seek information or advice from

  He consulted a lawyer about the case.

"Management consultant": major industry (McKinsey, Bain, BCG = "MBB"). Modern joke: consultants "borrow your watch to tell you the time".

• a person who provides expert advice

  She works as a management consultant.

"Free consultation": common offer for legal, medical, financial services.

• a meeting with an expert

  She booked a consultation with the doctor.

"Consultative role": adviser without decision-making authority.

• intended to give professional advice

  He has a consultative role on the project.

In programming/optimization: "constraints" are conditions that solutions must satisfy.

• to compel or force; to limit

  He felt constrained by the rules.

• a limitation or restriction

  Budget constraints limited their options.

"Age of consent": minimum age for lawful sexual activity. "Informed consent": medical/research ethics principle. "Consent culture": modern movement emphasizing affirmative agreement.

• permission for something to happen

  She gave her consent for the surgery.

• to give permission for something to happen

  She consented to the interview.

"Consenting adults": legal/social phrase, often about private behavior between adults. Modern relevance: consent culture, age of consent.

• giving permission, especially in legal contexts

  They were consenting adults.

"Confined to" + place: restricted to. "Confined space": narrow enclosed area (dangerous in industrial work).

• to keep within limits

  He was confined to his room for a week.

• (of a space) small and enclosed; restricted

  Working in confined spaces can be dangerous.

• the action of confining, or the state of being confined

  He was held in solitary confinement.

From Latin superfluus (overflowing). More formal than "unnecessary".

• unnecessary; more than is needed

  His comments were superfluous.

• an excessive amount of something; an unnecessary thing

  a superfluity of choices on the menu

More formal than "include" or "cover". Often used about a broad scope.

• to include comprehensively

  The course encompasses many subjects.

"Fidget spinner": toy fad of 2017. Often associated with ADHD; "fidget toys" can help focus for some.

• to move restlessly because of nervousness or impatience

  He fidgeted during the meeting.

• inclined to fidget

  The fidgety child couldn't sit still.

"Overdraft protection": bank service to cover transactions when account is empty (often with high fees).

• a deficit in a bank account caused by drawing more than the balance

  She has a $500 overdraft on her account.

"Overdraft fee": bank charge for going negative. "Overdraft protection": option to prevent these fees by drawing from savings.

• having withdrawn more from one's account than it contains

  My account is overdrawn.

"Rough draft": early version. "Rough estimate": approximate calculation. "Rough day": difficult day. "Rough" sounds like "ruff": confusing English spelling.

1. having an uneven surface

   The wood feels rough.

2. violent or harsh

   It was a rough neighborhood.

• (in 'ride roughshod over') to carry out one's own plans or wishes with arrogant disregard for others

  The government rode roughshod over the opposition.

In Catholic tradition: "go to confession", sacrament with a priest. "I have to confess...": common preface to admitting something embarrassing.

• to admit (something difficult or unpleasant)

  He confessed to the crime.

"Confession": important plot device in detective fiction. "Tell-all confession": public admission of secrets, often by celebrities.

• a formal statement admitting that one is guilty

  The police obtained a full confession.

Noun stress on first syllable; verb ("to attribute X to Y") on second: /əˈtrɪbjuːt/. In computing/HTML: attributes describe element properties.

• a quality or feature

  Honesty is one of her best attributes.

• to regard as belonging to or caused by

  He attributes his success to hard work.

• the action of attributing something to a cause or source

  The quote's attribution to Einstein turned out to be false.

"Attitude" (informal) = bad/defiant attitude ("don't give me that attitude"). "With attitude" = with confident or defiant style.

• a settled way of thinking or feeling about something

  She has a positive attitude toward life.

"Comply with" + regulations/orders. Related: compliance (noun), a major business/legal concept (e.g., "GDPR compliance", "SOX compliance").

• to act in accordance with a request or rule

  All employees must comply with safety rules.

In business, "compliance" is the department/role ensuring adherence to laws and regulations.

• the action of complying with a command, rule, or law

  The company is in compliance with all environmental regulations.

1. meeting or in accordance with rules or standards

   All our products are GDPR-compliant.

2. willing to obey rules or requests

   She was a compliant student who never caused trouble.

Homophone with "complement" (= goes well with) but DIFFERENT meaning. Memory aid: complIment with an "I" = praise; complEment with an "E" = completes.

• a polite expression of praise

  She received many compliments on her dress.

Verb pronunciation ends in /-ment/ (unlike the noun's /-mənt/).

• to praise or express admiration for

  She complimented him on his cooking.

"Tangle with" (informal) = get into a conflict with. See also untangle (added earlier).

• to twist together untidily

  Her hair was tangled.

• a confused mass of things twisted together

  The fishing line was in a tangle.

From "un-" (reverse) + "tangle". Used both literally (hair, ropes) and figuratively (complex situations).

1. to free from tangles or complications

   She untangled the necklace chain.

2. to make clear or understandable

   It took hours to untangle the mystery.

"What a coincidence!": common exclamation. "There are no coincidences": phrase suggesting hidden meaning (conspiracy theory or fate-belief).

• a remarkable concurrence of events without apparent connection

  What a coincidence: we have the same birthday!

• occur at or during the same time; correspond in nature; tally

  Publication is timed to coincide with a major exhibition.

"Cognitive science": interdisciplinary field studying mind. "Cognitive bias": systematic errors in thinking (e.g., confirmation bias). "Cognitive behavioral therapy" (CBT): major form of psychotherapy.

• relating to mental processes of thinking and understanding

  The disease can cause cognitive decline.

Broader than "intelligence": includes perception, memory, judgment, reasoning, problem-solving.

• the mental action of acquiring knowledge

  She studies human cognition.

Homophone with "claws". In grammar: independent vs. dependent clauses. In contracts: "non-disclosure clause", "escape clause".

1. a part of a sentence with its own verb

   The sentence has two clauses.

2. a particular section of a legal document

   There is a confidentiality clause in the contract.

"Civic duty": obligation as a citizen (voting, jury duty). Honda Civic: popular car model.

• relating to a city or town, especially its administration

  He felt it was his civic duty to vote.

"Gilded Age": late 19th-century American era of rapid economic growth and wealth inequality (Mark Twain's term). "Gild the lily": try to improve what's already beautiful (a phrase commonly misquoted from Shakespeare).

• to cover with a thin layer of gold

  The picture frame was gilded.

Literary/old-fashioned for "sleep". "Slumber party": children's sleepover. "Slumber" is also a popular Olympic-era mattress/sleep brand name.

• to sleep

  The baby slumbered peacefully.

• a period of sleep

  She was woken from her slumber by the phone.

Many slang senses: "bust" a criminal = arrest; "bust" a joke = tell one; "bust" something = break it. "Boom and bust": economic cycle.

• (informal) to break

  He busted his knee playing football.

"Bust size": clothing measurement around the chest. Famous busts: Nefertiti (ancient Egyptian), Roman emperors.

1. a sculpture of a person's head and shoulders

   The museum displays a bust of Caesar.

2. a woman's chest

   The dress emphasized her bust.

Informal, sometimes considered objectifying. From "bust" (woman's chest).

• (informal) having a large bust

  The dress was designed for busty women.

"A chunk of": informal for "a large part of". In programming/AI: "chunking" = breaking data/text into pieces.

• a thick piece

  He cut a chunk of cheese.

Slightly stronger than "inevitable": implies more effort would have been made to avoid it.

• unable to be avoided or prevented

  The delay was unavoidable.

Common American usage; British prefers "job" or "task" for everyday work, reserving "chore" for slightly tedious ones.

• a routine task, especially a household one

  He hates doing chores.

Homophone with "cord" (rope). "Strike a chord": resonate emotionally. "Power chord": rock-music staple.

• a group of musical notes played together

  He played a major chord on the piano.

"Cords" not "chords": common spelling mistake. Despite the musical sound association, vocal cords are anatomical structures (folds of tissue in the larynx).

• folds of tissue in the throat that vibrate to produce sound

  She strained her vocal cords from shouting.

"Chief": title for senior executives (CEO = Chief Executive Officer; CFO = Chief Financial Officer; CTO = Chief Technology Officer). "Police chief", "fire chief", "tribal chief".

• a leader or ruler

  He is the chief of the tribe.

• most important

  Her chief concern is safety.

"Certain" (as determiner) also means "particular but unspecified" ("a certain person").

• known for sure; established beyond doubt

  It is certain that prices will rise.

"There are only two certainties in life: death and taxes", famous Benjamin Franklin quote.

• firm conviction that something is the case

  I can say with certainty that he was there.

More formal than "spread through" or "fill". Both literal (smell, liquid) and figurative (ideas, attitudes).

• to spread throughout

  The smell of garlic permeated the house.

• allowing liquids or gases to pass through

  The membrane is permeable to water.

• the quality of being permeable

  Scientists measured the permeability of the soil.

"Capable of" + verb-ing - common construction.

• having the ability or qualities necessary to do something

  She is capable of handling the pressure.

"Nuclear capability": common geopolitical phrase. "Capabilities" (plural) in tech contexts = features a product can do.

• the power or ability to do something

  The country has nuclear capability.

Chemical symbol Ca. Essential nutrient: found in dairy, leafy greens, fortified foods. Deficiency causes osteoporosis.

• a soft gray metallic element, essential for bone health

  Milk is a good source of calcium.