Vocabulary: Batch 74

1. to chew (food) with a noisy crackling sound

   He crunched on the apple.

2. to make or move with a crushing, grinding sound

   The snow crunched under our boots.

3. (informal) to process large amounts of data or numbers

   The computer crunched the figures overnight.

'The crunch' = the decisive moment. 'Credit crunch' = a sudden tightening of credit, especially 2007-08.

1. a noisy crushing or chewing sound

   There was a loud crunch as the car hit the barrier.

2. a critical or decisive moment

   When the crunch came, they didn't have enough money.

3. a severe shortage or reduction

   The company faced a cash crunch and a looming time crunch.

4. an exercise in which you curl the upper body to strengthen the abdomen

   She does fifty crunches every morning.

US slang: 'crunchy' can also describe an earthy, health-conscious, hippie-ish lifestyle (from 'crunchy granola').

• making a sharp noise when bitten or crushed; firm and crisp

  He likes crunchy peanut butter.

Usually negative: implies unpleasantly wet (soggy cereal, soggy lawn). British: "soggy bottom", Great British Bake Off term for an underdone pie crust.

• wet and soft

  Don't let the cereal get soggy.

"Touch base": check in. "Touch and go": uncertain outcome. "Touched" (adj.): emotionally moved, or (informal) slightly crazy.

• to make physical contact with

  Don't touch the wet paint.

"Out of touch with reality" - disconnected from how things actually are. Often applied to politicians or elites.

• lacking up-to-date knowledge or awareness

  He seems somewhat out of touch with modern reality.

• to cause something (often dramatic or violent) to start suddenly

  The verdict touched off riots across the city.

"Touchy subject" = a sensitive topic.

1. easily upset or offended

   He's touchy about his weight.

2. requiring careful handling

   It's a touchy political issue.

Distinct from "hard": tough describes resistance to biting, cutting, or breaking (tough meat, tough material), while hard describes resistance to pressure or denting.

1. (of food, especially meat) difficult to cut or chew

   The steak was overcooked and tough.

2. strong and resilient; not easily broken, damaged, or defeated

   He has a tough exterior but a soft heart.

1. having the power to move heavy weights or perform other physically demanding tasks

   She was a strong woman.

2. having a powerful flavor or effect, especially of a drink

   The coffee was too strong for her.

Pronounced with epenthetic /k/: /streŋkθ/, the cluster /-ŋθ/ is hard, so speakers insert /k/. "From strength to strength" = increasingly successful. "Play to your strengths."

1. the quality of being physically strong

   He doesn't have the strength to lift it.

2. a good or valuable quality

   Patience is her greatest strength.

• make or become stronger

  He exercises every day to strengthen his muscles.

• a place that has been fortified so as to protect it against attack

  Their mountain strongholds.

"Weak link" - the least reliable part of a system. "Weak spot" - a vulnerability.

1. lacking physical strength or power

   He felt weak after the illness.

2. having little flavor or strength, especially of a drink

   The tea was weak and watery.

"-en" suffix forms verbs from adjectives meaning "make/become more X" (weaken, strengthen, harden, soften, lighten, darken). Antonym: strengthen.

• to make or become weaker

  His grip weakened over time.

1. firm, fresh, and making a light sound when bitten or crushed

   The apples were crisp and sweet.

2. clear and sharp

   She gave a crisp answer.

British English.

• British English for a potato chip

  He opened a packet of crisps.

"Crispy": usually about fried foods. "Crisp" (UK) = US "chip" (potato). "Extra crispy": KFC menu option.

• firm and hard; agreeably crunchy

  He loves crispy bacon.

American term; British: tap.

• a device by which a flow of liquid or gas from a pipe or container can be controlled

  She turned on the kitchen faucet.

US: "faucet" more common in formal speech. "Tap water": both US and UK. "On tap" = available immediately (beer or otherwise).

• a device that controls water flow; a light hit

  Turn off the tap when brushing.

• to hit lightly

  He tapped on the window.

Past tense: spoiled or spoilt. "Spoiler": info that reveals plot. "Spare the rod, spoil the child": old saying. "Spoiled brat": overindulged child.

1. to damage or ruin

   The bad weather spoiled our trip.

2. to harm a child's character by overindulgence

   Don't spoil the baby.

3. to become unfit for eating

   The milk has spoiled.

• stolen goods; the rewards of a situation

  The spoils of war.

• ruined, or (of food) no longer fit to eat

  The spoiled milk smelled terrible.

Often used metaphorically: "wither under criticism", "hopes withered".

1. (of a plant) to become dry and shrivel

   The flowers withered in the heat.

2. to fall into decay

   His career began to wither.

• shriveled or dried up, especially from age or lack of water

  The withered plant needed water badly.

• smelling or tasting bad because fat or oil has spoiled

  The butter had gone rancid.

Past participle of "expire" used as an adjective; also common for documents/licenses ("an expired passport").

• no longer valid or safe to use because a fixed time period has ended

  Don't drink that milk, it's expired.

• (of fruit) having become too ripe and starting to spoil or lose firmness

  The bananas were overripe and mushy.

Negative. Compare frugal, which usually praises sensible economy. Stingy rhymes with dingy and contains the /dʒ/ sound.

1. unwilling to spend, give, or share enough money or resources

   The company was criticized for being stingy with employee benefits.

2. too small or insufficient in amount

   The cafe served a stingy portion of rice.

• a person who advocates a theory, proposal, or project

  A collection of essays by both critics and proponents of graphology.

Distinct from an individual "secretary": a secretariat is the administrative body or office that supports an organization, often headed by a Secretary-General (e.g., the United Nations Secretariat).

• the administrative office or department that manages the affairs of an organization, especially an international one

  The proposal was submitted to the UN Secretariat for review.

• a tool, container, or other object, especially one used in a kitchen

  Spoons, forks, and knives are eating utensils.

Don't confuse with "proscribe" (= forbid): near opposites!

1. to recommend (a medical treatment) authoritatively

   The doctor prescribed antibiotics.

2. to state authoritatively that something be done

   The rules prescribe how to vote.

"Rx": common abbreviation for prescription, originally Latin "recipe" (take). "By prescription only": for controlled drugs.

• a doctor's written instruction for medication

  She picked up her prescription at the pharmacy.

In linguistics, contrasted with "descriptive": prescriptivists say how language SHOULD be used; descriptivists describe how it IS used.

• laying down rules to be followed

  He took a prescriptive approach to grammar.

"Scratch the surface" = barely begin. "Made from scratch" = made entirely fresh. "Scratch your head": gesture of puzzlement.

• to score or mark the surface of something

  The cat scratched the furniture.

Common lottery format. Reveal numbers/symbols by scratching off latex coating with a coin.

• a lottery card with a coating to scratch off

  She won $50 on a scratch card.

Tech: temporary working file. "Scratch" implies disposable and informal.

• a temporary file for working drafts

  He saved his notes in a scratch file.

Both physical (notepad) and digital (text editor like Scratchpad). Children use scratch pads for doodling.

• a pad for writing notes or doodling

  He kept a scratch pad by the phone.

"Scratchy throat": early cold symptom. "Scratchy wool": uncomfortable fabric.

• making a scratching sensation

  The wool sweater was scratchy.

• a blurred or smeared mark on a surface

  A smudge of lipstick.

• to cause something to become messily smeared by rubbing it

  Don't smudge the wet paint.

Acronym for "fear, uncertainty, and doubt"; originally IBM-era marketing jargon, now common in tech and crypto communities.

• a strategy of spreading negative, misleading, or unverified information to discourage people from a competitor's product, idea, or investment

  Analysts dismissed the report as pure FUD.

• to spread fear, uncertainty, and doubt about (something), especially online

  Trolls tried to FUD the new coin right after launch.

From Latin "de-" + "gradus" (step). Two senses: humiliate someone, or chemically break down. "Degrading treatment": common human rights phrase.

• to lower in dignity; to break down chemically

  He felt degraded by the comments.

"Environmental degradation", "land degradation": common ecological terms. Also: human suffering/humiliation.

• the condition of being degraded

  They lived in poverty and degradation.

"Biodegradable": can be broken down by biological processes. Common labeling for eco-friendly products.

• able to be broken down chemically

  This plastic is fully degradable.

"On the occasion of": formal. "Rise to the occasion" = perform well under pressure. "Special occasion": significant event.

• a particular time or event

  It was a very special occasion.

"Occasional table": small portable side table.

• happening from time to time

  She enjoys an occasional glass of wine.

• at infrequent or irregular intervals

  We occasionally go to the movies.

• an attitude to or outlook on issues, especially from a particular perspective

  From a financial standpoint, the deal is risky.

Two uses are debated: strict (= disprove) vs loose (= deny). Both are common; the strict sense is preferred in formal writing.

1. to prove (a statement or theory) to be wrong

   The scientist refuted the earlier hypothesis with new data.

2. to deny or contradict (a statement)

   He firmly refuted the accusations.

• the act of proving a statement or theory wrong

  The paper offers a thorough refutation of the old theory.

• to flow over the edge of a container or place

  The sink overflowed.

• excess people, liquid, or data that cannot fit

  The theater opened an overflow room.

Often figurative: "overflowing with joy", "overflowing with gratitude". Suggests abundance, often emotional.

• too full to contain

  The trash can was overflowing.

This is context-dependent rather than a single universal term. In racing, it usually means two linked left-hand bends; in directions, it can mean two left turns close together.

• a sequence of two connected or closely spaced left turns

  Brake before the double left, then accelerate onto the straight.

At an intersection with two left-turn lanes, each driver must remain in the corresponding lane throughout the turn.

• a road turn in which two adjacent lanes turn left at the same time

  Stay in your lane while making the double left turn.

Fixed phrase; implies the current arrangement is temporary and may change later.

• for now; temporarily, until a different arrangement is made

  We'll stay in this apartment for the time being.

"Clumsy attempt": common phrase. Different from "awkward" (which is more social).

• awkward in movement

  He's clumsy and often drops things.

Root of unhinge/unhinged.

• a jointed device that connects two parts, such as a door and its frame, allowing a turning or pivoting motion

  The door hinge squeaked when it opened.

• to depend entirely on a particular factor

  Everything hinges on tomorrow's decision.

• to make (someone) mentally unbalanced

  The trauma unhinged him for years.

Modern slang use: "that's unhinged" = wildly inappropriate or weird.

• mentally unbalanced; deranged

  His rant on social media seemed completely unhinged.

• attached by or fitted with a hinge, allowing it to swing or pivot

  The box has a hinged lid.

"Fade away", "fade out": common phrases. Film: "fade to black", scene transition. Hair: "fade", modern haircut style with gradient.

• to gradually disappear

  The colors faded over time.

• having lost brightness, color, or strength over time

  He wore a pair of faded blue jeans.

1. to become or make smaller in size or amount

   The sweater shrank when it was washed.

2. to draw back or recoil, especially from fear or disgust

   She shrank from his touch.

'A shrink' (informal, often mildly dismissive) is a very common slang term for a psychiatrist or therapist.

• (informal) a psychiatrist or psychotherapist

  He's been seeing a shrink since the divorce.

"Shrunken head" - a preserved, shrunken human head, historically associated with certain Amazonian tribes.

• having become smaller than the original size

  The old man had a shrunken frame after years of illness.

• to mark (something) with colored patches or dirty marks that are not easily removed

  Her clothing was stained with blood.

• a discolored patch or mark caused by contact with a foreign substance

  There was a coffee stain on the tablecloth.

• marked or discolored by a stain

  He threw away the stained shirt.

1. to raise the level of activity or interest in something

   The teacher tried to stimulate the students' curiosity.

2. to encourage development or activity

   The drug stimulates the production of red blood cells.

• having the effect of stimulating

  The government enacted stimulative spending measures.

Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines are all stimulants. Antonym: depressant (alcohol, opioids, benzodiazepines).

• a substance that raises levels of physiological or nervous activity

  Coffee is a mild stimulant.

Latin phrase, literally "by itself". Used in English unchanged. Often used to clarify that a statement applies only to the thing in isolation, not its associations.

• by or in itself; intrinsically; considered alone without reference to anything else

  Money is not evil per se; it depends on how it is used.

Adjective form: grimy.

1. dirt that is ingrained on a surface, especially through long exposure

   Years of grime coated the factory windows.

2. a genre of electronic dance music that originated in London in the early 2000s, blending UK garage, dancehall, and hip-hop

   Grime artists like Skepta helped bring the genre to the mainstream.

• to examine one's own thoughts and feelings

  She took time to introspect after the breakup.

• characterized by examining one's own thoughts and feelings

  He's become more introspective since the accident.

• the examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

  After much introspection, she decided to quit her job.

• a period of time equal to sixty seconds or a sixtieth of an hour

  It will take a few minutes.

• extremely small

  A minute chance of success.

Always plural in this sense; there is no singular "a minute" for a single record item.

• an official written record of what was discussed and decided at a meeting

  The secretary took minutes during the board meeting.

Common in business/IT jargon ("sales enablement", "digital enablement") for the systems and support that make an activity possible.

• the act of providing someone or something with the ability, means, or authority to do something

  The new software focuses on employee enablement rather than replacement.

"Home remedy": traditional treatment. "Legal remedy": what a court can do to fix a wrong. Various "folk remedies" (chicken soup for colds, honey for sore throats).

• a medicine or treatment for a disease

  There is no remedy for the common cold.

• to put right (an undesirable situation)

  They took steps to remedy the problem.

• intended to correct a problem or improve a skill

  He took a remedial math class.

Common collocation: "environmental remediation" (cleaning up contaminated land or water).

• the process of correcting a fault, damage, or contamination

  The company began remediation of the contaminated soil.

1. a place where someone or something is located or has been put

   The distress call gave a ship's position.

2. a job or rank within an organization

   She has a senior position in the company.

3. a person's opinion or stance on a particular issue

   What's your position on the new policy?

• to place (someone or something) in a particular position

  Position the camera carefully before you start filming.

In finance, positioning describes how investors are allocated or exposed before a market move.

• the way a company, product, brand, or investor is placed or presented relative to alternatives

  The company's positioning emphasizes reliability rather than low price.

Finance. Positioning risk often increases when many investors have made the same crowded trade.

• the risk of loss caused by the way an investor, company, or market participant is exposed to an asset or expected outcome

  Heavy positioning risk left the fund vulnerable when interest-rate expectations changed.

• plural of positioning risk

  Analysts warned that crowded trades had created significant positioning risks.

Common pattern: indicative of something. In business documents, indicative often means preliminary, illustrative, or not binding.

1. serving as a sign that suggests a condition, quality, or likely result

   Rising order volumes are indicative of stronger demand.

2. showing a typical example or general tendency rather than an exact measurement

   The figures are indicative only and may change after the audit.

3. relating to the grammatical mood used for ordinary statements and questions about facts

   'She works here' is in the indicative mood.

Sway can be physical movement or influence. In the influence sense, the object is usually a person, group, or opinion.

1. to move slowly or rhythmically from side to side

   The branches swayed in the wind.

2. to influence a person's opinion, decision, or behavior

   The evidence swayed several undecided voters.

The common idiom is hold sway over someone or something. 'Sway over' is normally part of this larger construction, not a standalone verb phrase.

• power or influence over people, decisions, or events

  The founder still holds considerable sway over the board.

• to have strong influence or control over someone, something, or a place

  For decades, the family held sway over local politics.

Poise usually praises composure. Compare poised, meaning composed or ready to do something.

1. calm self-confidence and graceful control, especially under pressure

   She answered hostile questions with remarkable poise.

2. a balanced and stable position or condition

   The dancer held her poise before beginning the turn.

1. to hold or balance something carefully in a particular position

   He poised the glass at the edge of the table.

2. to prepare or position someone or something for an action or change

   New investment poised the company for rapid expansion.

Common pattern: poised to + verb. It signals readiness or a likely next development.

1. calm, self-assured, and graceful

   Despite the pressure, the presenter remained poised.

2. ready and likely to do something soon

   The economy is poised to slow if borrowing costs rise.

Usually with "the". Often associated with stage fright or pre-performance anxiety.

• a feeling of extreme nervousness

  She had a bad case of the jitters before her speech.

Jittery is informal. It can describe people, markets, hands, video, or movements.

1. nervous and unable to relax or stay still

   Investors grew jittery before the inflation report.

2. shaky, unsteady, or irregular

   The video looked jittery because the camera was moving.

Payoff is one word as a noun. It often implies that an earlier effort, cost, or risk finally produces a benefit.

1. a reward, benefit, or profit resulting from an effort or investment

   The training program took months, but the payoff was higher productivity.

2. the final result or revealing moment in a story, joke, or plan

   The movie's payoff depends on a clue introduced early on.

3. an illegal payment made to obtain a favor

   The official was charged with accepting payoffs from contractors.

From Greek lithos, meaning stone. In semiconductor manufacturing, photolithography transfers a pattern onto a wafer using light.

1. a printing process based on the fact that oil and water do not mix, traditionally using a flat stone or metal plate

   Early posters were often produced by lithography.

2. the process used to create tiny patterns on semiconductor wafers

   Modern chip manufacturing relies on photolithography to define circuit features.

1. to go down below the surface of a liquid

   The ship sank.

2. (figurative) to fall into a worse state, especially emotionally

   He sank into depression after the loss.

• a fixed basin with a water supply and drain

  He washed his hands in the sink.

"Fatal flaw" = a character defect that leads to a person's downfall, often used in literary analysis.

1. a mark or imperfection that spoils something

   There was a flaw in the diamond.

2. a weakness in a plan or argument

   The theory has a fundamental flaw.

• having a defect

  His reasoning is flawed.

Flawless is very strong praise. In ordinary use, it can mean no noticeable errors rather than literal perfection.

1. without any faults, defects, or mistakes

   The dancers gave a flawless performance.

2. perfectly smooth or clear in appearance

   The gem had a nearly flawless surface.

• (of an army) to withdraw as a result of defeat or superior enemy force

  The French retreated.

1. an act of withdrawing, especially from danger or difficulty

   The army's retreat was orderly.

2. a quiet or secluded place for rest or reflection

   They spent the weekend at a mountain retreat.

Rattle off means recite or list quickly. Be rattled means become unsettled or nervous.

1. to make a rapid series of short knocking or clinking sounds

   Loose windows rattled in the wind.

2. to make someone nervous, confused, or less confident

   The unexpected question rattled the candidate.

3. to say or do something quickly and without much thought

   He rattled off the figures from memory.

1. a baby's toy that makes a rattling sound

   The baby shook a brightly colored rattle.

2. a rapid series of short knocking or clinking sounds

   We heard the rattle of dishes in the kitchen.

Translate into is used for language and for results: translate research into a product, or capex into profit.

1. to express words or text in another language

   Could you translate this contract into English?

2. to be converted into, result in, or produce a practical outcome in another context

   The company is still waiting for higher capital spending to translate into profit.

For language, translation is the result or process. In business and science, it can mean conversion into practical impact.

1. a version of spoken or written material in another language

   The translator compared three English translations of the poem.

2. the process of turning an idea or investment into a practical result

   The translation of laboratory results into treatments can take years.

"Willing to" + verb - common construction. Antonym: unwilling, reluctant. "Where there's a will, there's a way" - proverb.

• ready or eager to do something

  He's willing to help.

Common patterns: willingness to do something and willingness to consider or negotiate.

1. the quality of being prepared or eager to do something

   Her willingness to explain the process made the workshop useful.

2. a readiness to accept or consider something

   The talks showed a new willingness to compromise.

Almost always "averse to". Don't confuse with "adverse" (= unfavorable). Memory aid: averse needs a personal object ("averse to risk"); adverse describes conditions ("adverse weather").

• having a strong dislike of or opposition to something

  She is averse to taking risks.

Same Latin root (avertere = turn away). Common: "avert disaster", "avert one's eyes".

1. to prevent or ward off

   They acted quickly to avert a crisis.

2. to turn (one's eyes or thoughts) away

   She averted her gaze from the accident.

Most common pattern: an aversion to something or doing something. Stronger than a simple dislike.

• a strong dislike of or reluctance toward something

  She has a deep aversion to unnecessary risk.

Common collocations: a bout of flu, coughing, depression, or anger. A bout is usually limited in time.

1. a short period of a particular activity, feeling, or illness

   She had a brief bout of insomnia after changing time zones.

2. a contest or match, especially in boxing or wrestling

   The championship bout lasted all twelve rounds.

1. to undo (twisted, knitted, or woven threads)

   The sweater began to unravel at the cuff.

2. to investigate and explain (something complicated or puzzling)

   Detectives slowly unraveled the mystery.

3. to begin to fail or collapse

   His plans started to unravel when his partner backed out.

"Let it slide" = ignore an issue. "Slide into someone's DMs" = send a private message, often flirtatiously.

1. to move smoothly along a surface

   The drawer slides open easily.

2. to move quietly or unobtrusively

   She slid out of the room without anyone noticing.

3. to gradually become worse or lower

   Sales have been sliding for months.

1. a structure with a smooth sloping surface for children to slide down

   The kids climbed up to the top of the slide.

2. a single image in a presentation, originally a photographic transparency

   His talk had over 60 slides.

3. a small glass plate on which a specimen is mounted for examination under a microscope

   The technician prepared a slide of the tissue sample.

In nature means in the natural world or outdoors. By nature means because of someone's inherent character. Second nature is a skill that has become automatic through practice.

1. the physical world of plants, animals, land, and natural processes, especially apart from human-made things

   Spending time in nature helps her recover from a week indoors.

2. the basic qualities, character, or usual behavior of a person or thing

   It is not in his nature to ignore someone who needs help.

3. the essential type or character of something

   They disagreed about the nature of the problem.

• a marked path designed for observing plants, animals, and other natural features

  The park's nature trail includes signs identifying local birds.

Most common pattern: contingent on/upon something. A contingent arrangement takes effect only if a condition is met.

1. depending on a particular event, condition, or decision

   The offer is contingent on the buyer obtaining financing.

2. not certain to happen or exist; possible rather than necessary

   In philosophy, the outcome is contingent rather than inevitable.

• a group of people representing a larger organization, place, or interest

  A large contingent of students traveled to the conference.

Common phrases: contingency plan and contingency fund. A contingency is uncertain, but it is foreseeable enough to prepare for.

• a possible event or situation that must be prepared for because it may happen

  The team kept a contingency plan in case the venue lost power.

Standard spelling: rebuttal. 'Rebuttle' is a misspelling. The related verb is rebut: rebut an argument or accusation.

• a statement or argument that replies to and seeks to disprove a claim, accusation, or case

  The company issued a detailed rebuttal of the allegations.

• the amount of money needed to buy, do, or make something

  The cost of living has risen sharply.

• to require the payment of a specified amount of money

  The repair cost two hundred dollars.

Costly can refer to money, but it also commonly describes consequences: a costly delay, defeat, or error.

1. costing a large amount of money

   Replacing the damaged equipment would be a costly repair.

2. causing a serious loss, disadvantage, or mistake

   The typing error proved costly when the shipment went to the wrong port.

"Grade on a curve" - adjust scores based on class distribution. "Ahead of the curve" - innovative. "Flatten the curve" - COVID-era public health slogan.

• a line that bends gradually

  There's a sharp curve in the road.

• having many curves

  A curvy road.

In mathematics and physics, high curvature means a sharper change in direction. In ordinary use, it can simply describe the amount of bend in an object or path.

1. the quality or degree of being curved

   The engineers adjusted the road's curvature to improve visibility.

2. a mathematical measure of how rapidly a line, surface, or path changes direction

   A straight line has zero curvature at every point.

• an action, decision, or judgment that is wrong or produces an unintended result

  It was a mistake to leave the door unlocked.

Past: mistook. Past participle: mistaken.

• to wrongly identify someone or something as someone or something else (often "mistake X for Y")

  I mistook him for his brother.

• so distinctive or clear that it cannot be confused with anything else

  She walked in with her unmistakable confidence.

Predicative pattern: be mistaken about something. Before a noun, mistaken often means based on an error: a mistaken assumption, belief, or identity.

1. wrong in one's belief, opinion, or judgment

   If you think the deadline is next week, you are mistaken.

2. based on an error or misunderstanding

   The warning was issued because of a case of mistaken identity.

Often negative when describing a person or plan because it suggests deceit. In the second sense, it can express admiration for clever design.

1. clever at achieving a goal, especially through deception or indirect methods

   The fraud relied on a cunning scheme that hid losses in several subsidiaries.

2. ingeniously designed or executed

   The lock contains a cunning mechanism that is difficult to copy.

• skill in achieving a goal through cleverness, deception, or indirect methods

  The fox escaped through a mixture of speed and cunning.

• the quality of being careful and economical with money or resources

  Her frugality allowed her to save a large portion of her salary.

Usually approving: frugal means economical and not wasteful. Compare stingy, which criticizes an unwillingness to give or spend enough.

1. careful to avoid wasting money, food, time, or other resources

   Their frugal habits allowed them to build an emergency fund.

2. simple and inexpensive

   We ate a frugal meal of soup, bread, and fruit.

The approving sense meaning cool or nice is especially common in American English. For spirits, neat means poured directly from the bottle without dilution.

1. tidy, orderly, and carefully arranged

   She keeps detailed notes in a neat folder system.

2. simple, skillful, and effective

   The engineer proposed a neat solution to the space problem.

3. served without water, ice, or another mixer

   He ordered the whiskey neat.

4. pleasant, interesting, or impressive

   That is a neat feature, especially for new users.

"What a mess!" - common exclamation. "Mess hall" - military dining room. "Don't mess with me" - don't antagonize me. "Hot mess" - chaotic person/situation.

• a state of disorder or untidiness

  His room was a mess.

• to make untidy or interfere with

  Don't mess with my papers.

Messy can describe physical disorder, complicated situations, or activities that create dirt. Antonym: neat or tidy.

1. untidy, dirty, or disorganized

   His desk was messy, but he could find every document.

2. complicated, unpleasant, or difficult to resolve

   The partnership ended in a messy legal dispute.

3. likely to make something dirty or require cleanup

   Painting with young children can be a messy activity.

Use forget to do for a missed action, but forget doing for a memory of a past action.

1. to fail to remember a fact, person, event, or intended action

   I forgot to attach the document before sending the email.

2. to stop thinking about or deliberately disregard something

   Forget the earlier estimate; the assumptions have changed.

Forgetful describes a recurring tendency. It can sound critical, so use tact when discussing age or health.

• likely to forget things frequently

  He has become forgetful about names but still remembers faces clearly.

• the quality of arriving or doing something at the agreed time

  His punctuality impressed his new employer.

Common patterns: punctual for an appointment and punctual in doing something. Punctual describes being on time, not merely being early.

• arriving or happening at the agreed, expected, or correct time

  The train is usually punctual, even during the morning rush.

Compare with "empathy" (feeling with someone, vs. sympathy = feeling for someone).

• feelings of pity and sorrow for someone else's misfortune

  He expressed his sympathy for her loss.

• to feel or express sympathy

  I sympathize with your situation.

Often used of political supporters: "Communist sympathizer".

• a person who agrees with or supports a sentiment, opinion, or ideology

  He was a Nazi sympathizer.

British spelling of sympathize.

• British spelling of sympathize

  I sympathise with your situation.

Standard spelling: sympathetic. 'Sypathetic' is a misspelling. Common patterns: sympathetic to/toward someone and sympathetic to a cause.

1. showing that one understands and cares about another person's difficulties or feelings

   The doctor was sympathetic and answered every question patiently.

2. approving of or favorably disposed toward an idea, cause, or person

   Several lawmakers were sympathetic to the proposal.

3. well suited to a particular purpose, style, or appearance

   The renovation used materials sympathetic to the original building.

Famous quote (Elie Wiesel): "The opposite of love is not hate, it's indifference."

• lack of interest, concern, or sympathy

  She greeted the news with indifference.

Common pattern: indifferent to something. Do not confuse indifferent, meaning unconcerned, with different, meaning not the same.

1. not interested in, concerned about, or affected by something

   Voters appeared indifferent to the dispute between the two officials.

2. neither particularly good nor particularly bad

   The hotel was expensive, but the service was indifferent.

The plural 'hostilities' specifically means acts of war ('the outbreak of hostilities').

1. unfriendliness, opposition, or hostile behavior

   There was open hostility between the two neighbors.

2. (hostilities, plural) acts of warfare

   Hostilities broke out along the border at dawn.

In business, a hostile takeover proceeds without the target company's board approving the acquisition.

1. unfriendly and showing strong dislike or opposition

   The witness faced hostile questioning from the attorney.

2. belonging or relating to an enemy

   The aircraft crossed into hostile airspace.

3. difficult, dangerous, or unfavorable for life or activity

   Few plants survive in the hostile desert environment.

4. opposed by the company being acquired

   The board rejected the hostile takeover bid.

1. to give assistance, encouragement, or approval to someone or something

   Her colleagues supported her decision to report the problem.

2. to hold something up or bear its weight

   Steel columns support the roof.

3. to provide evidence that makes a claim more credible

   The new data support the original conclusion.

• help, encouragement, approval, or material assistance

  The family received financial and emotional support from the community.

Common patterns: supportive of a proposal and supportive toward a person. For emotional help, a supportive person listens without dismissing concerns.

• giving help, encouragement, approval, or emotional understanding

  Her supervisor was supportive when she requested a flexible schedule.

"Knowledge is power" - Francis Bacon's famous phrase. "To the best of my knowledge" - a common qualifying phrase.

• facts, information, and skills acquired through experience or education

  She has a deep knowledge of history.

Standard spelling: knowledgeable. 'Knowledgable' is a common misspelling. The initial k is silent.

• having or showing substantial knowledge of a subject

  The guide was knowledgeable about both the region's history and its wildlife.

In magic, "distraction" is a key technique. Smartphones are a major source of modern distraction.

• to draw away the attention of

  Don't distract me while I'm working.

• preventing concentration

  The noise was very distracting.

"To distraction" (idiom) = to a state of mental disturbance, e.g., "love her to distraction".

1. a thing that prevents someone from giving full attention

   His phone is a constant distraction.

2. a thing that amuses or entertains

   Music is a pleasant distraction from her worries.

Common patterns: distracted by noise and distracted from a task. Distracted driving is driving while attention is diverted, often by a phone.

• unable to concentrate because one's attention or thoughts are elsewhere

  He seemed distracted during the meeting and missed two important decisions.

Plural of the noun: focuses or foci (formal). "In focus" / "out of focus" - photography. "Focus group" - market research.

• to concentrate attention or effort on

  You need to focus on your work.

• the center of interest or activity

  Children are the focus of her life.

Also spelled focussed in British English, though focused is common in both varieties. Common pattern: focused on something.

1. giving close and sustained attention to a particular goal or task

   She stayed focused despite the noise outside.

2. clearly directed toward a specific subject, group, or result

   The charity launched a focused campaign to reduce childhood hunger.

• in a way that shows careful and persistent effort

  She worked diligently through the night.

"Due diligence" = careful investigation before making a business decision.

• careful and persistent effort or work

  Her diligence in researching the topic paid off.

Diligent emphasizes sustained, careful effort rather than speed. Due diligence is a careful investigation before an important decision.

• working carefully, steadily, and persistently

  Her diligent review caught several errors before the contract was signed.