Vocabulary: Batch 38

"Software engineer", "civil engineer", "sound engineer" - common job titles across many fields.

• a person who designs, builds, or maintains machines, structures, or systems

  She works as a mechanical engineer.

Often implies clever or careful planning, sometimes with a negative connotation ("engineer a scandal").

1. to design and build (something) using scientific methods

   The bridge was engineered to withstand earthquakes.

2. to skillfully bring about (a result), especially through contrivance

   He engineered his own promotion.

Major branches: civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical, computer, software, aerospace. "Reverse engineering": figuring out how a product works by examining it.

• the branch of science concerned with the design and use of engines and machines

  He studies civil engineering.

"Enforce the law", "enforce a rule": common collocations.

• to compel observance of (a law or rule)

  It's hard to enforce that rule.

In contracts: "enforceable" provisions vs. those courts won't uphold (e.g., overly broad non-compete clauses).

• able to be enforced

  The contract is legally enforceable.

"Law enforcement": police, FBI, etc. "ICE": Immigration and Customs Enforcement (US).

• the act of compelling observance of a law

  Law enforcement is challenging.

"Close encounter" (with UFOs): popular sci-fi/conspiracy theory term. Spielberg's film "Close Encounters of the Third Kind" (1977).

• to unexpectedly experience or be faced with

  They encountered many difficulties.

• an unexpected or casual meeting

  It was a chance encounter.

Notoriously misspelled. Memory aid: two r's, two s's ("Really Really So So" embarrassing).

• to cause to feel awkward or self-conscious

  His behavior embarrassed her.

• feeling self-conscious or ashamed

  She was embarrassed by the attention.

"Embarrassing dad": common cultural trope. "Cringe" (modern slang): closely related concept.

• causing embarrassment

  It was an embarrassing situation.

"Embarrassment of riches": a surplus that's almost a problem.

• a feeling of self-consciousness or shame

  He blushed with embarrassment.

"Eliminate" can be euphemistic for kill (especially in spy/crime contexts). In sports/competition: be eliminated from a tournament.

• to completely remove or get rid of

  The new policy aims to eliminate waste.

"Elimination round" - in sports/competitions, a stage where losers are knocked out. "Process of elimination" - problem-solving by ruling out possibilities.

• the action of completely removing or getting rid of something

  The diet is based on the elimination of sugar.

"Elementary, my dear Watson": famous Sherlock Holmes phrase (though never actually said exactly this in the original stories). "Elementary school" (US) = primary school.

• relating to the most basic or initial level

  He teaches elementary mathematics.

In math/CS: "elegant proof" / "elegant solution", minimal and beautiful. "Elegant" in fashion: refined, not flashy.

• graceful and stylish

  She wore an elegant black dress.

"Effortless elegance" - common fashion/design phrase.

• the quality of being graceful and stylish

  The dress was admired for its elegance.

A subatomic particle with negative charge. "Electron microscope" - uses electron beams instead of light for much higher magnification.

• a subatomic particle with a negative electric charge

  Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom.

"Electronic music" - genre using synthesizers/computers. "Electronic signature" - legally binding in many countries.

• having or operating with components such as microchips and transistors that control an electric current

  They bought a new electronic device.

Major industry. "Consumer electronics": TVs, phones, laptops. CES (Consumer Electronics Show): annual Las Vegas trade show.

• the branch of physics dealing with electronic devices

  She studies electronics.

"Elastic clause": informal name for Article I, Section 8, Clause 18 of the US Constitution. "Elasticity": economics term for demand sensitivity.

• able to resume its normal shape after being stretched

  The waistband is elastic.

In economics: "price elasticity of demand" - how much demand changes when price changes.

• the ability of a material or object to resume its normal shape after being stretched

  Rubber is known for its elasticity.

Used physically (unstable structure), chemically (unstable compound), psychologically (mentally unstable), or politically (unstable region).

• likely to change or fail

  The economy is unstable.

Famous: "The Importance of Being Earnest", Oscar Wilde's 1895 play (a pun on the name Ernest and the adjective). "In earnest": seriously.

• resulting from or showing sincere conviction

  He made an earnest plea for help.

From Greek dynamis (power). "Dynamic" can describe people (energetic), systems (changing), or programs (data-driven). Antonym: static.

1. characterized by constant change or activity

   It's a dynamic industry.

2. (of a person) positive and full of energy

   She is a dynamic leader.

"Group dynamics" - how people interact within a group. In physics: the branch of mechanics concerned with forces and motion.

• the forces or properties that stimulate change within a system

  They studied the dynamics of the negotiation.

• the quality of being energetic and forceful

  Her leadership brought new dynamism to the team.

"Drift apart": gradually lose closeness. "Drift" in racing: controlled sliding around corners. "Drift" in linguistics: gradual language change.

• to be carried slowly by a current of air or water

  The boat drifted out to sea.

"Get my drift" = understand my general meaning. "Genetic drift", "continental drift", "snow drift" - common technical/everyday compounds.

• a gradual movement, change, or accumulation

  There's been a gradual drift toward remote work.

Don't confuse with "apprise" (= inform). Common in real estate: home appraisal determines value.

• to assess the value or quality of

  He appraised the painting at $50,000.

Common professions: real estate appraiser, art appraiser, insurance appraiser.

• a person who appraises the value of property

  The appraiser visited the house.

"Performance appraisal": common HR term for employee review.

• an assessment of someone or something's value or quality

  They received an appraisal of the property.

• to appraise again, especially with a new perspective

  It's time to reappraise our strategy.

• a new appraisal

  The situation calls for a reappraisal.

"No-fault divorce": legal concept allowing divorce without proving wrongdoing. US divorce rate around 40-50%.

• the legal dissolution of a marriage

  Their divorce was amicable.

Also used figuratively: "divorced from reality" = out of touch.

• to legally end one's marriage to (someone)

  She divorced her husband after ten years.

• no longer married

  Her parents are divorced.

"Divine intervention": religious concept of God acting in the world. "Divine" (as informal exclamation) = delightful. "Divine Comedy": Dante's masterpiece.

• relating to a god

  The pope is considered the divine representative.

"Divinity" (uncapitalized) = divine nature; capitalized "Divinity" = the field of theological study (also called divinity school).

1. the state or quality of being divine

   Ancient rulers often claimed divinity.

2. the study of religion and theology

   He has a degree in divinity.

More literary/formal than "guess" or "figure out".

• to discover or perceive by intuition or guesswork

  She divined his true intentions from his tone.

In film/theater: "props" (short for "properties"), objects used by actors. "Prop comic": comedian using objects (Carrot Top). Modern: "give props" = give credit/respect.

1. a portable object used in a play or film

   The film had elaborate props.

2. a pole or beam used to support something

   They used a prop to hold up the wall.

Antonym: open-minded, broad-minded. Strong negative judgment.

• unwilling to consider ideas different from one's own

  He's too narrow-minded to accept new ideas.

Originally 1940s slang for jazz fan. Revived in early 2000s for a cultural type (skinny jeans, beards, vinyl records, craft beer, fixed-gear bikes).

• a person following the latest trends, especially outside the mainstream

  The neighborhood is full of hipsters.

"Flex" (modern slang): show off ("weird flex but OK"). "Flex hours" / "flextime": flexible work schedules. "Flex muscles": both literal and figurative (flex political muscle).

• to bend (a limb or joint); to show off

  He flexed his biceps.

"District attorney" (DA): chief prosecutor in many US jurisdictions. "Red-light district": area known for prostitution. "School district": local educational area.

• an area of a town or country with specific characteristics

  They live in the financial district.

"Distributed systems": major tech concept (servers cooperating across a network). "Distributed denial of service" (DDoS): cyberattack.

• to give shares of (something) to

  They distributed flyers to passersby.

"Distributed workforce": modern term for remote teams. "Distributed ledger": blockchain foundation.

• shared out among multiple parties

  The work is distributed evenly.

In statistics: "normal distribution" (bell curve). In business: "distribution channels". In economics: "wealth distribution".

• the action of distributing

  The distribution of food took days.

"Film distributor" - company that releases movies. Historically also a car engine part that routes electrical current (mostly replaced by electronic ignition).

• a company or person that supplies goods to retailers

  The company is a major distributor of electronics.

Medical: "eating disorder", "anxiety disorder", "bipolar disorder". "Civil disorder" / "public disorder": riots, unrest.

1. a state of confusion

   The room was in complete disorder.

2. an illness that disrupts normal functioning

   She has a sleep disorder.

• lacking organization; suffering from a disorder

  His thoughts were disordered.

"Disorderly conduct": common low-level criminal charge in the US.

• untidy; behaving in an unruly way

  He was arrested for disorderly conduct.

Multiple senses: send away (school dismissal), fire (employment), reject (an idea), close a case (legal).

1. to send away

   The teacher dismissed the class.

2. to remove from a job

   He was dismissed for misconduct.

3. to treat as unworthy of consideration

   Don't dismiss her ideas so quickly.

• removal from a job, case, or position

  The employee challenged his dismissal.

• showing that something is not worth attention

  She gave a dismissive shrug.

One of the basic emotions (Ekman's six). "Disgust": character in Pixar's "Inside Out" (2015).

• a feeling of revulsion or strong disapproval

  She looked at it in disgust.

• feeling revulsion

  He was disgusted by her behavior.

Very common general-purpose negative reaction. "That's disgusting!": child's classic dismissal.

• arousing revulsion or strong indignation

  The food was disgusting.

"Blessing in disguise": apparent setback that turns out beneficial. Disguises common in spy thrillers, magic acts, Halloween.

• a means of altering one's appearance

  The spy wore a clever disguise.

• to give a different appearance to

  He disguised his voice.

Common spelling mistake: "dissappoint" (wrong, only one s). Memory: dis + appoint.

• to fail to fulfill the hopes or expectations of

  I don't want to disappoint you.

• sad because something hoped for did not happen

  She was disappointed by the result.

• failing to meet expectations

  It was a disappointing performance.

"To my disappointment": common phrasing introducing bad news.

• sadness or displeasure caused by failed hopes

  His face showed his disappointment.

"At a disadvantage": common phrase. Antonym: advantage. "Disadvantaged groups": socioeconomic term added earlier.

• an unfavorable circumstance

  The main disadvantage is the cost.

Formal. More common: "unfavorable" or "a disadvantage".

• causing or involving disadvantage

  The terms of the contract were disadvantageous.

Often used about socioeconomic status: "economically disadvantaged children". "Underprivileged" is a similar term, often preferred.

• in unfavorable circumstances

  The program helps disadvantaged children.

Major organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum. Process takes ~24-72 hours from mouth to elimination.

• the system of organs that processes food

  Fiber is important for the digestive system.

"I beg to differ": polite formal disagreement. "Agree to differ": accept that you disagree and move on.

• to be unlike

  Their opinions differ greatly.

• to recognize or ascertain what makes someone or something different

  Children can differentiate between the past and the present.

"Different from" is the standard American preposition; "different to" is common in British English.

• not the same as another

  Her opinion is different from mine.

"Make a difference" - have a significant effect. "Split the difference" - compromise.

• a way in which people or things are unlike

  There's a big difference between the two options.

"Venn diagram": overlapping circles showing set relationships. "Flow diagram" / "flowchart": process visualization.

• a simplified drawing showing the appearance or workings of something

  The diagram explains how it works.

• in the form of a diagram

  The book uses diagrammatic representations.

"Devote oneself to" : common reflexive use. Related: devoted (added earlier), devotion.

• to give all or a large part of (one's time or resources) to

  She devoted her life to teaching.

"Devoted to" = very loyal/dedicated to.

• very loving or loyal

  They are a devoted couple.

In religion, "devotions" (plural) = prayers and religious practices.

• love, loyalty, or enthusiasm

  Her devotion to her work is admirable.

1. deeply religious; showing great commitment to a religion

   She is a devout Catholic.

2. sincere; heartfelt

   It is my devout hope that you will succeed.

• in a devout manner; sincerely

  He devoutly wished for peace.

"Determine" can mean find out ("we need to determine the cause") or decide ("she is determined to win").

• to establish exactly by research or calculation

  They will determine the cause of death.

"Self-determination": the right of peoples to choose their own government (key UN principle).

• firmness of purpose

  She showed great determination.

"I'm determined to...": common firm-purpose phrasing.

• having made a firm decision

  He's determined to succeed.

• to discover or identify the presence of something

  The sensor can detect smoke.

"Escape detection" - avoid being noticed. "Early detection" - common in medical contexts.

• the action of detecting something

  Early detection improves survival rates.

Famous: Sherlock Holmes, Hercule Poirot, Philip Marlowe, Easy Rawlins. "Detective fiction" / "whodunit": major literary genre.

• a person whose job is to investigate crimes

  The detective questioned the witnesses.

More formal alternative to "in spite of". Don't confuse with "spite" (= malicious ill will).

• without being affected by

  Despite the rain, they went hiking.

British spelling for the noun. Americans use "dependent" for both noun and adjective.

• (British) a person who relies on another for support

  He listed his three dependants on the form.

"Dependent on" / "dependent upon": common preposition pairings. In American English: noun form too.

• requiring something or someone for support

  She is financially dependent on her parents.

More formal than "leave". Also: "depart from" + tradition = deviate from.

• to leave, especially to start a journey

  The train departs at 9 a.m.

"Dearly departed": euphemism for the dead. "The Departed": Scorsese's 2006 film.

• dead (used euphemistically)

  They mourned the dearly departed.

"Department store": Macy's, Bloomingdale's. "Department of Defense" (DoD), "Department of Education", etc.: US federal agencies.

• a division of a large organization

  She works in the marketing department.

"Departures" board at airports/stations. "Departure from tradition": figurative breaking with custom.

• the action of leaving

  Departure is at 8 p.m.

"Densely populated": common collocation. "Dense" can also mean dim-witted (informal). "Density", physics: mass per unit volume.

• closely packed together

  The forest is very dense.

Physics: mass per unit volume. "Population density" - common demographic measure.

• the degree to which something is closely packed together

  The city has a high population density.

"Have a gripe with": have a complaint about. "Gripe water": herbal remedy for baby colic.

• to complain about something in a persistent way

  He's always griping about the weather.

• complaining in an annoying way

  The constant griping wore everyone down.

Often used about food preferences ("finicky eater" = picky eater). Similar to "fussy" or "particular".

• fussy about one's needs or requirements

  She's a finicky eater.

"Turkish delight": gel-like sweet, famous in Narnia (Edmund's temptation).

• great pleasure

  She squealed with delight.

"Delighted to meet you": formal pleasant greeting. Stronger than "pleased".

• feeling great pleasure

  She was delighted with the gift.

Often used as a polite compliment about people or experiences. Can sound slightly old-fashioned or upper-class British.

• causing delight

  It was a delightful evening.

Originally a pointed stick used to drive cattle. Now mostly used figuratively.

• to provoke or annoy into action

  He goaded her into responding.

"Delicate situation" : requiring careful handling. "Delicate balance" : common phrase.

1. easily broken or damaged

   Handle the delicate vase carefully.

2. requiring tactful treatment

   It's a delicate matter.

Cultural delicacies vary widely: caviar, foie gras (Western); bird's nest soup, shark fin (Chinese); haggis (Scottish); natto (Japanese).

1. a choice or expensive food

   Caviar is considered a delicacy.

2. careful sensitivity in dealing with a difficult or private situation

   The topic requires tact and delicacy.

• the quality of being fine, gentle, or easily damaged

  The delicacy of the glass made it hard to ship safely.

Past tense: swelled. Past participle: swollen (or swelled). "Swell" (slightly dated, US): excellent ("that's swell!").

• to become larger or rounder

  Her ankle began to swell after the fall.

Medical: visible enlargement caused by injury or infection. "Reduce the swelling": common advice with ice or anti-inflammatories.

• an abnormal enlargement of a body part

  The swelling in her ankle went down overnight.

In psychology, "repression" (Freud): unconscious blocking of unwanted thoughts/feelings. Different from "suppress" (conscious).

1. to subdue (someone or something) by force

   The government repressed the protests.

2. to restrain or prevent (an emotion)

   She repressed her anger.

Common in psychotherapy contexts: "repressed memories", controversial topic, especially regarding childhood trauma.

• prevented from being expressed

  He had repressed feelings of anger.

• the action of subduing or restraining

  The regime is known for political repression.

Common in political contexts: "repressive regime".

• using force to control behavior

  They live under a repressive regime.

In sports: "defend the title", try to retain championship. In law: "defend a client", represent in court.

• to resist an attack made on

  The army defended the city.

British spelling; American: defense. "Department of Defense" (DoD): major US federal agency. "Self-defence": legal justification for force.

• (British) the action of defending

  He fought in defence of his country.

Often used to evaluate arguments or actions: "morally defensible", "legally defensible".

• justifiable; able to be defended

  His position was legally defensible.

"Get defensive": react with protectiveness to criticism. "Defensive driving": drive cautiously to avoid accidents caused by others.

1. used or intended to defend

   He took a defensive position.

2. very anxious to defend oneself from criticism

   Don't be so defensive.

Chiefly British spelling of 'self-defense'.

• the defense of one's person or interests, especially through the use of physical force

  He claimed he acted in self-defence.

American spelling. British: defence.

• the action of defending

  He fought in defense of his country.

American spelling. British: self-defence.

• the defense of one's person or interests, especially through the use of physical force

  He claimed he acted in self-defense.

"Accept defeat": graciously acknowledge losing. "Defeated" (adjective): discouraged. "Defeat the purpose": make pointless.

• to win victory over

  They defeated the champions.

• an instance of being defeated

  The team suffered a humiliating defeat.

Politically loaded: often used to criticize those who acknowledge difficulties. "Defeatist attitude": common pejorative phrase.

• the attitude that defeat is inevitable

  He criticized the team's defeatism.

"Declare war": formal start of conflict. "Declare bankruptcy": legal financial protection. "Anything to declare?": customs question at borders.

• to say something in a solemn manner

  He declared his innocence.

"Declaration of Independence" - founding US document. "Customs declaration" - travel form.

• a formal or explicit statement

  The country issued a declaration of independence.

Grammar: declarative sentences state facts (vs interrogative, imperative). Programming: declarative vs imperative paradigms (SQL is declarative).

• having the form of a statement

  "It's raining" is a declarative sentence.

"Damp squib": British idiom for something that fails to impress. Slightly less wet than "wet"; more than "moist".

• slightly wet

  Wipe the table with a damp cloth.

"Dampen spirits" / "dampen enthusiasm": common figurative uses.

• to make slightly wet; to reduce in force

  Don't let it dampen your enthusiasm.

• a thing that has a depressing or inhibiting effect

  The bad news was a dampener on the party.

"Put a damper on": reduce enthusiasm of. Also: device in chimneys/HVAC controlling airflow.

• something that has a subduing effect

  The rain put a damper on the picnic.

"Curse" can refer to a magical malediction (King Tut's curse) or simply offensive language. "Curse word" = swear word.

1. a solemn utterance intended to invoke supernatural punishment

   The witch put a curse on him.

2. an offensive word or phrase

   He let out a string of curses.

Two pronunciations: /kɝːst/ (one syllable, past tense) vs. /ˈkɝːsɪd/ (two syllables, adjective). "Cursed image": modern internet meme genre.

• under or deserving a curse

  He believed the house was cursed.

Informal American English variant of "curse".

• to use offensive language; to swear

  Don't cuss in front of the children.

1. a swear word

   He let out a stream of cusses when he stubbed his toe.

2. (dated, informal) a person, especially an annoying or stubborn one

   He's a stubborn old cuss.

"Curl": exercise term (bicep curl). "Curl" in computing: `curl` is a popular command-line tool for HTTP requests. "Curling": winter Olympic sport with stones.

• to form or cause to form into a curved shape

  She curled her hair before the party.

"Curly Sue": 1991 John Hughes film. "Curly hair": common hair type.

• having curls or a curling shape

  He has curly red hair.

"Have a crush on": romantic infatuation, especially early-stage. "Crushing it" (modern slang): performing excellently. "Crushed" can mean emotionally devastated.

• to deform, pulverize, or force inwards by pressing

  He crushed the can with his foot.

• a brief intense romantic infatuation

  She had a crush on her teacher.

"Jumble sale" (British): informal sale of donated goods, similar to rummage sale (American).

• to mix in a confused way

  All the papers were jumbled together.

• mixed up in a confused way

  His thoughts were jumbled.

In linguistics/philosophy: "denote" = explicit meaning; "connote" = implied meaning. Common in technical writing.

• to be a sign of; to mean

  The red light denotes danger.

"Film critic", "music critic", "food critic": major professions. "Critics' choice": award given by critics.

• a person who judges the merits of literary, artistic, or musical works

  She's a respected film critic.

British spelling: criticise. "Constructive criticism": feedback intended to help.

• to express disapproval of

  Don't criticize her in front of others.

"Literary criticism": academic analysis of literature. "Self-criticism": historical Maoist term, also modern psychological concept.

• the expression of disapproval

  His proposal faced fierce criticism.

Two senses: disapproving ("critical of") and crucial ("critical role"). "Critical thinking": major educational goal.

1. expressing disapproval

   She was critical of the decision.

2. extremely important

   Sleep is critical to health.

• a detailed analysis and assessment of something, especially a literary, philosophical, or political theory

  She wrote a radical critique of Oliver's ideas.

• to evaluate in a detailed and analytical way

  The professor critiqued each essay carefully.

"Pub crawl" / "bar crawl": visiting multiple establishments in one evening. "Web crawl": search engines indexing pages. "The crawl": opening text of Star Wars films.

• to move forward on hands and knees

  The baby is starting to crawl.

From 'crawl'. 'Pub crawl' = visiting many bars in one night.

1. a person, animal, or thing that crawls

   The baby was a surprisingly fast crawler.

2. (computing) a program that systematically browses the web to index pages

   Search engines use crawlers to discover new pages.

• to bring something into existence

  The artist created a beautiful sculpture.

"The Creation" (capitalized): religious term for God's making of the universe. "Creationism": religious belief opposing evolutionary biology.

• the action of bringing something into existence

  The creation of the new department took months.

"Arts and crafts": common educational/recreational category. "Craft beer": small-scale specialty brewing. "Witchcraft": practice of witches.

1. an activity involving skill in making things by hand

   She practices traditional crafts.

2. a boat or aircraft

   Several small craft were in the harbor.

"Over the counter" (OTC): drugs sold without prescription. "Bean counter" (informal) = accountant.

• a long flat surface in a shop or kitchen

  He paid at the counter.

"Counter argument" / "counter attack" / "counter offer": many compounds. "Counter" as prefix means "opposing".

• to speak or act in opposition to

  He countered her argument with facts.

"Costume party": guests dress in themed outfits. "Costume jewelry": fashion jewelry made with inexpensive materials. Halloween costumes are a $10+ billion industry in the US.

• a set of clothes worn in a play or as fancy dress

  She wore a witch costume for Halloween.

British spelling "jewellery". American: "costume jewelry". Not made of precious materials: designed to imitate or look stylish cheaply.

• inexpensive imitation jewelry

  She loved bold costume jewellery.

American spelling. British: costume jewellery.

• inexpensive imitation jewelry

  She loved bold costume jewelry.

"Correspondence": written communication (somewhat formal/dated as email replaced letters). "Correspondent": reporter sending news from a location.

1. to be similar or equivalent

   The two stories don't correspond.

2. to communicate by letters or email

   They corresponded for years.

1. written communication by letters or email

   The archive contains their correspondence.

2. a close similarity or match

   There is little correspondence between the maps.

• a course studied remotely by mail or online

  She completed a correspondence course in accounting.

• a reporter who sends news from a particular place

  The paper sent a correspondent to Cairo.

Homophone with "chord" (musical). "Cord": electrical cable. "Umbilical cord": connects fetus to placenta. "Vocal cords": see vocal-cords entry.

• a thin flexible string or rope

  He tied the package with a cord.

Also spelled "cooperate" (without hyphen): increasingly common in modern usage. British style often retains the hyphen.

• to act jointly; to work toward a common end

  The two countries co-operated on the project.

"The Co-op": popular short form for co-operative store. Famous: housing co-operatives, agricultural co-operatives. Also a noun.

• willing to act with others; jointly owned

  He was very co-operative during the investigation.

Don't confuse with "persuade": purists say "convince" changes belief; "persuade" changes action. In practice often interchangeable.

• to cause to believe firmly in the truth of something

  She convinced him to stay.

Formal: "talk" or "chat" is more everyday. Converse: also a famous sneaker brand (Chuck Taylor All Stars).

• to engage in conversation

  They conversed for hours.

• the opposite of something

  The converse is also true.

• familiar with or knowledgeable about something

  You need to be fully conversant with the company's procedures.

• introducing a statement or idea which reverses one that has just been made or referred to

  We're not going to have enough onions to last the year, while conversely, we have too many potatoes.

"Make conversation" - talk to fill silence. "Conversation piece" - an unusual object that prompts discussion.

• a talk between two or more people

  They had a long conversation about the future.

"Contribute to": donate, or play a part in causing. "Contributing factor": common analytical phrase.

• to give (something) to help achieve or provide

  Everyone contributed to the project.

"Charitable contributions": tax-deductible in many countries. "Contribution margin": accounting term.

• the act of giving help or money

  Thank you for your contribution.

"On the contrary": formal disagreement phrase. "Contrary to popular belief": common preface to corrections. Old phrase: "Mary Mary quite contrary".

• opposite in nature, direction, or meaning

  His opinion is contrary to mine.

From contrary (opposite). Often used in investing: a contrarian buys when others sell, and sells when others buy.

• a person who opposes or rejects popular opinion

  He has always been a contrarian in his political views.

Common collocations: 'a contrarian view', 'a contrarian streak'.

• opposing or rejecting popular opinion; deliberately contrary

  She took a contrarian view on the new policy.

• the practice or attitude of opposing or rejecting popular opinion

  His contrarianism sometimes seemed like disagreement for its own sake.

"Taken out of context": quoted misleadingly. "In context": properly situated. "Context is everything": common saying.

• the circumstances surrounding an event or situation

  You must understand the historical context.

• to build or erect something

  They constructed a new bridge over the river.

"Under construction" - common sign. "Construction site", "construction worker" - common collocations.

• the process or business of building

  The construction of the new mall took two years.

"Constructive criticism": feedback intended to help (vs. "destructive criticism"). Antonym: destructive.

• serving a useful purpose; intended to help

  His criticism was constructive.

"Consistent with": in agreement with. Antonym: inconsistent. "Consistency": major virtue in habits, branding, parenting.

• acting or done in the same way over time

  She has been consistent in her efforts.

Two senses: steadiness/uniformity, and the thickness of a liquid or mixture.

1. the quality of always behaving or performing in a similar way

   The team's consistency won them the title.

2. the thickness or texture of a liquid or soft substance

   Beat the batter to a smooth consistency.

"Presser": informal short form. Common after major events: sports games, government announcements, corporate news.

• a meeting between officials and reporters

  The mayor held a press conference.

"To whom it may concern" - formal letter opening. "None of your concern" - none of your business.

1. a matter of interest or importance

   Safety is our main concern.

2. a feeling of worry

   She expressed concern about the changes.

• worried or involved in something

  Concerned parents called the school.

• on the subject of or in connection with; about

  He asked several questions concerning the future of the company.

"Frozen orange juice concentrate" - common product. "Concentrate fire" (military) - focus weapons on a target.

• to focus all one's attention on a particular object or activity

  He couldn't concentrate on his work.

"Concentration camp" - historical term for confinement of civilians (Nazi camps are most infamous). "Major concentration" in college - primary field of study.

• the action of focusing attention

  This requires intense concentration.

• made stronger by removing water or by focusing in one place

  The cleaner is sold in concentrated form.

• a place where large numbers of people, especially political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities, are imprisoned in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities

  The horrors of the concentration camps.

"Don't complicate things": common advice. Related noun: complication (added earlier).

• to make more difficult or complex

  Don't complicate matters further.

In medicine: "complications" = unforeseen problems arising from a procedure or condition. Often used as a euphemism for death ("died from complications related to...").

• a difficulty that makes things harder

  There were unexpected complications.

From Latin com- (with) + panis (bread): originally "one who eats bread with you". "Travel companion", "life companion": common collocations.

• a person or animal with whom one spends a lot of time

  The dog is her constant companion.

"Community college" (US): 2-year public college. "Online community": modern social phenomenon. "Community service": volunteer work or court-ordered service.

• a group of people living in the same place

  It's a small farming community.

Many senses: legal code, dress code, ZIP code, source code, Morse code, secret code. "Crack the code": figure out the meaning.

1. a system of words, letters, or signs used to represent others

   They communicated in code.

2. a set of rules of behavior or law

   The criminal code is strict.

British term. American equivalent: ZIP code. Modern UK postcodes (e.g., "SW1A 1AA") were introduced in the 1960s-70s.

• (British) a series of letters or numbers added to a postal address

  What's your postcode?

American term. "ZIP" stands for "Zone Improvement Plan". 5-digit basic format; "ZIP+4" adds 4 more digits.

• (American) a postal code

  My zip code is 90210.

Common categories: formal, business casual, smart casual, casual. "Black tie" / "white tie": strictest formal codes.

• a set of rules about what clothes to wear

  The office has a strict dress code.

Homophone with "course". Two senses: rough texture (coarse sand) or vulgar (coarse language). Antonym: fine, refined.

1. rough or harsh in texture

   The fabric is too coarse.

2. rude or vulgar

   He uses coarse language.

"The Clash": famous British punk-rock band. "Clash of civilizations": Samuel Huntington's controversial thesis.

1. to come into violent conflict

   The two groups clashed in the streets.

2. (of colors) to be visually incompatible

   The pink and orange clash.

"Come full circle" - return to the starting point after change. "Inner circle" - closest associates.

• a round plane figure whose points are equidistant from the center

  She drew a circle on the paper.

"Circular reasoning": logical fallacy where the conclusion is also a premise. "Circular economy": modern term for waste-minimizing systems.

• having the form of a circle

  They sat in a circular pattern.

"Semi-circular canal": part of the inner ear responsible for balance.

• having the form of half a circle

  The amphitheater is semi-circular.

"In chorus": together, in unison. In Greek drama: "chorus", group commenting on the action. Modern: refrain of a song.

1. the part of a song that is repeated

   Everyone sang along to the chorus.

2. a group of singers

   The school chorus performed at the assembly.

Vaudeville and early Hollywood institution. "Chorus line": row of dancers. Famous: A Chorus Line (Broadway musical).

• a young woman who sings and dances in a chorus

  She started as a chorus girl on Broadway.

"In character" / "out of character" - consistent or inconsistent with someone's personality. "Character actor" - plays distinctive supporting roles.

1. the mental and moral qualities distinctive to an individual

   Her honesty says a lot about her character.

2. a person in a novel, play, or film

   The main character faces a difficult choice.

British spelling: characterise. "Characterize" used in two ways: describe traits, or be a defining feature.

1. to describe the distinctive nature of

   How would you characterize his style?

2. to be typical of

   Strong colors characterize her paintings.

"Defining characteristic": common phrase. Also an adjective: "characteristic of" = typical of.

• a feature or quality of someone or something

  Honesty is one of her best characteristics.

• not typical of a particular person or thing

  An uncharacteristic outburst of temper.

• in a way that is not typical of a particular person or thing

  He was uncharacteristically quiet.

"Chamber of Commerce": local business organization. "Chamber music": small ensemble (string quartet, etc.). "Echo chamber": modern term for self-reinforcing information bubbles.

• a large room used for formal or public events

  The senate chamber was crowded.

Used in Nazi extermination camps during the Holocaust: one of the most horrific industrial-scale murder methods. Also a historical US execution method (now abandoned in most states).

• an airtight room used to kill people by poison gas

  The Nazis used gas chambers to murder Jews.

American spelling: catalog. "Catalogue": old-fashioned commercial mail-order publication (Sears Catalogue was iconic). Online stores have largely replaced printed catalogues.

• a complete list of items, typically with descriptions

  She ordered from the catalogue.

American spelling. British: catalogue.

• a complete list of items, typically with descriptions

  She ordered from the online catalog.

"Cargo pants": pants with large pockets, originally military. "Cargo cult": anthropological term for indigenous beliefs about foreign goods after WWII Pacific contact.

• goods carried by a ship or aircraft

  The cargo arrived on time.

Multiple senses: city (Tokyo is Japan's capital), money (venture capital), letters (capital letters). "Capital punishment" = death penalty. "Capital crime" = punishable by death.

1. the most important city of a country

   London is the capital of the UK.

2. wealth in the form of money or assets

   They raised capital for the new venture.

Taxed differently from regular income in many countries. "Capital gains tax" (CGT): major political topic.

• profits from the sale of property or investments

  Capital gains are taxed differently.

Two senses: write in capital letters, or take advantage of ("capitalize on an opportunity"). British spelling: capitalise.

1. to write or print in capital letters

   Capitalize the first letter of names.

2. to take advantage of

   They capitalized on their opponent's mistake.

"Venture capitalist" (VC): investor in startups. Once a politically charged term; less so today in the West.

• a wealthy person who uses money to invest in trade and industry

  He's a successful capitalist.

"Late-stage capitalism": modern critical term. Major schools: free-market, regulated, welfare capitalism. Contrasted with socialism, communism.

• an economic system based on private ownership of production

  Capitalism dominates the global economy.

"Incite a riot": common legal/journalistic phrase. "Incitement" can be a criminal charge in some jurisdictions.

• to encourage or stir up (violent behavior)

  He incited the crowd to riot.

"Incitement to violence": legal category (e.g., in 2021 US Senate impeachment trial).

• the action of inciting

  He was charged with incitement to violence.

"Counting calories": common diet practice. Technically, food "calories" are kilocalories (kcal). Average adult needs ~2000-2500 per day.

• a unit measuring the energy value of food

  She tries to limit her calorie intake.

"News bulletin": short news update. "Bulletin" (short for "bulletin board"): early internet computer message boards (BBS).

• a short news report

  There was a news bulletin about the storm.

American term. British: noticeboard. "BBS" (Bulletin Board System): pre-internet text-based online communities (1980s-90s).

• a board for displaying notices

  There's a flyer on the bulletin board.

Modern slang: "brutal" can also mean impressive ("that workout was brutal", informal compliment).

• savagely violent

  It was a brutal attack.

"New broom sweeps clean": proverb about new leaders making changes. "Brooming": a hockey/curling technique.

• a long-handled brush used for sweeping

  She swept the floor with a broom.

Traditional witches' transportation in folklore: Harry Potter's quidditch revived/reimagined this trope.

• the handle of a broom; a stick used by witches in folklore

  The witch rode a broomstick.

"Stone broke" / "flat broke" / "dead broke": emphatic forms. "Go for broke": risk everything. Past tense of "break".

• (informal) having no money

  I'm broke until payday.

"Bride and groom": couple at a wedding. "Bridesmaid": bride's female attendant. "Princess Bride": famous 1987 film. "Mail-order bride": historical/controversial practice.

• a woman on her wedding day

  The bride wore white.

• a girl or woman who accompanies a bride on her wedding day

  Her sister was the bridesmaid.

Past tense: bred. "Familiarity breeds contempt": proverb. "Breed" can also mean produce offspring (animals).

• to cause (animals) to reproduce

  They breed horses on the farm.

• a type or variety of animal

  The Labrador is a popular breed of dog.

• to breed or cause to breed with another of a different race or species

  Wolves and dogs can interbreed.

• (of an animal) bred from parents of the same breed or variety

  A pure-bred dog.

• a person who breeds animals or plants; an animal that breeds in a particular way

  A dog breeder.