Vocabulary: Batch 50

From Greek melan (black) + chole (bile): one of the four humours in ancient medicine, believed to cause sadness.

• a deep, pensive, and prolonged sadness

  A sense of melancholy filled the room.

• sad, gloomy, or pensive

  She has a melancholy expression.

Don't confuse with "mediate" (to settle a dispute). Common in modern wellness contexts (meditation apps, mindfulness practice).

1. to focus one's mind for a period in silence, for spiritual or relaxation purposes

   She meditates for twenty minutes every morning.

2. to think deeply about something

   He meditated on the question for hours.

• the practice of focused contemplation

  Meditation helps reduce stress.

• deeply thoughtful; relating to meditation

  He was in a meditative mood.

Also spelled "mediaeval" (older British form). The Medieval period is roughly 500-1500 AD. Used metaphorically for harsh or cruel: "medieval punishment".

1. relating to the Middle Ages

   They studied medieval history.

2. old-fashioned, especially in being cruel or harsh

   His views on women's rights are medieval.

Don't confuse with "meditate" (to contemplate quietly). A "mediator" intervenes; a "meditator" reflects.

• to intervene between disputing parties to bring about agreement

  She mediated the dispute between the two families.

• a person who mediates between disputing parties

  A neutral mediator helped resolve the strike.

• intervention between disputing parties to bring about agreement

  The couple went through mediation before their divorce.

Old usages (master of a house, master and slave) carry historical weight. Modern computing/engineering increasingly avoids "master/slave" terminology.

1. a person who has dominance or control over others or something

   He is master of his own destiny.

2. a skilled practitioner

   She is a master of the violin.

3. a male teacher (chiefly British)

   The Latin master was strict.

• to acquire complete knowledge or skill in

  He mastered French in just two years.

1. comprehensive knowledge or skill

   Her mastery of the piano is impressive.

2. control or dominance

   They struggled for mastery of the seas.

"Marvel" is also the comics publisher (Marvel Comics to the MCU).

• to be filled with wonder

  She marvelled at the size of the cathedral.

• a wonderful or astonishing thing

  The new bridge is a marvel of engineering.

British spelling (double l); American: marvelous. Now slightly old-fashioned or upper-class British.

• (British) extraordinarily good or wonderful

  What a marvellous idea!

American spelling; British: marvellous.

• (American) extraordinarily good or wonderful

  You look marvelous tonight.

"Martial" comes from Mars, the Roman god of war. Common examples: karate, judo, taekwondo, kung fu, jiu-jitsu, MMA.

• any of various sports or skills, mainly of Asian origin, practiced as combat

  He has studied several martial arts.

Often abbreviated MS (singular) or MSS (plural). From Latin manu (by hand) + scriptus (written).

• a handwritten or typed document, especially a writer's text before publication

  She submitted her manuscript to a publisher.

"The Midlands" = the central region of England (Birmingham, etc.). Also used adjectivally: "a midland accent".

• the middle part of a country

  They moved from the coast to the midlands.

Archaic in modern speech for "young unmarried woman". "Maiden name" = a woman's family name before marriage.

• (archaic) a young unmarried woman

  The poem tells of a beautiful maiden.

"Maiden voyage" = a ship's first voyage. The Titanic famously sank on its maiden voyage.

• first of its kind

  The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage.

A parliamentary tradition, especially in the UK House of Commons. By convention, maiden speeches are not interrupted.

• the first speech given by a newly elected member of a parliament

  She delivered her maiden speech to a packed chamber.

Contraction of "madam". In the US, common polite address to any woman (Southern especially). In the UK, formally used for the Queen (pronounced /mɑːm/, rhyming with "palm").

• a polite form of address to a woman

  "Yes, ma'am," the officer replied.

Also a British informal slang for "excellent" or "attractive" ("That curry was lush"). Lush is also a well-known cosmetics brand.

1. (of vegetation) growing thickly and luxuriantly

   The garden was full of lush green plants.

2. luxurious; opulent

   They stayed in a lush hotel suite.

From Latin luna (moon). "Lunar calendar" is based on moon phases; "Lunar New Year" (Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.) follows it.

• relating to the moon

  Astronauts collected lunar rock samples.

From "lull" (to calm). Brahms' Lullaby is the most famous Western example.

• a soothing song sung to send a child to sleep

  She hummed a lullaby to her baby.

From Latin lucrum (gain, profit): same root as "lucre" (money, often pejorative).

• producing a great deal of profit

  She landed a lucrative contract with a major firm.

Often shortened to "speaker" in everyday speech ("the speakers on my computer").

• a device that converts electrical signals into sound

  The announcement came over the loudspeaker.

"Lottery ticket" = the basic unit. "Win the lottery" = sudden good fortune (often figurative).

1. a game of chance in which numbered tickets are drawn for prizes

   She won millions in the state lottery.

2. a process whose success depends entirely on chance

   Getting a good seat is a lottery.

Often used interchangeably with "sunscreen", though technically "sunblock" implies physical blockers (like zinc oxide) while "sunscreen" can include chemical filters.

• a cream or lotion that protects skin from sunburn and UV damage

  Apply sunblock before going to the beach.

Thinner than cream, thicker than tonic. Common types: body lotion, hand lotion, calamine lotion.

• a thick liquid applied to the skin

  She rubbed lotion on her arms.

More common in American English (especially country music, "lonesome cowboy"). British tends to prefer "lonely".

1. sad because of being alone

   He felt lonesome on the long drive.

2. unfrequented and remote

   They walked down a lonesome road.

Short for "logotype". Famous logos: Apple's apple, Nike's swoosh, McDonald's golden arches.

• a symbol or design used to identify a company or product

  The logo appears on all their packaging.

From Latin extra (beyond) + vagari (to wander). Usually mildly disapproving when describing spending.

1. spending much more than is necessary

   They led an extravagant lifestyle.

2. exceeding what is reasonable or appropriate

   He made extravagant claims about his product.

• the quality of being extravagant; an extravagant thing

  The dinner was an expensive extravagance.

Italian origin, often used for theatrical or musical spectacles. "Holiday extravaganza", "musical extravaganza".

• an elaborate and spectacular entertainment or production

  The opening ceremony was a three-hour extravaganza.

Almost always followed by "to". From "of kin": etymologically "related by blood".

• of similar character; related

  His feelings were something akin to fear.

"Hit or miss" is more common in American English; "hit and miss" in British. Same meaning.

• as likely to fail as to succeed; unreliable

  The restaurant's quality is hit or miss.

• as likely to fail as to succeed; unreliable

  His attempts at humor were a bit hit and miss.

Short for "preparation". "Prep school" = a private school preparing students for college (US) or for advanced secondary school (UK).

• (informal) preparation

  He spent the morning doing meal prep.

• (informal) to prepare for something

  She prepped the patient for surgery.

From Latin innatus (inborn). Often paired with "learned" in discussions of human behavior.

• existing in a person from birth; natural rather than learned

  She has an innate sense of rhythm.

Coined in the 1990s as a deliberate misspelling of "fishing" (with "ph" common in hacker slang). "Spear phishing" = targeted attacks on specific individuals.

• the practice of sending fraudulent emails or messages to trick people into revealing personal information

  Don't click on suspicious links; it could be a phishing attempt.

The disease is leprosy (Hansen's disease). "Leper" is now often considered offensive when referring to actual sufferers; people prefer "a person with leprosy". Used metaphorically ("social leper") for someone shunned.

1. a person with leprosy

   In medieval times, lepers were isolated from society.

2. a person who is shunned or avoided

   After the scandal, he became a social leper.

Almost always written as two words in modern American English; British sometimes uses the hyphenated "no-one". "Noone" (one word) is generally considered incorrect.

• no person; nobody

  No one came to the party.

From Arabic amir al-bahr ("commander of the sea"), unrelated to "admire" despite the similar spelling.

• a senior commander in a navy

  The admiral led the fleet into battle.

From Latin admirari (to wonder at). Note: "admiral" (naval officer) is a FALSE cognate, it comes from Arabic amir al-bahr (commander of the sea), not Latin admirari.

1. to regard with respect or warm approval

   I really admire your courage.

2. to look at with pleasure

   They stood admiring the view.

Stress shifts to the first syllable (unlike "admire").

• deserving respect and approval

  Her dedication is admirable.

• respect and warm approval

  She is held in great admiration.

• showing admiration

  He gave her an admiring glance.

"Ski lodge", "hunting lodge": common types. Also: "Masonic lodge" = a chapter of Freemasons.

• a small house, especially in rural or wilderness areas

  They stayed at a ski lodge in the Alps.

"Lodge a complaint" = formally submit a complaint.

1. to stay in temporary accommodation

   He lodged with a local family during the course.

2. to submit a formal complaint or claim

   She lodged an appeal against the decision.

• someone who rents a room in another person's home

  They took in a lodger to help pay the mortgage.

From Latin timidus (fearful). Related: timidity (noun).

• showing a lack of courage or confidence

  She was too timid to ask for a raise.

• the state of lacking courage or confidence

  He overcame his timidity to ask for a raise.

Coined by analogy with "literacy". The adjective form is "numerate".

• the ability to understand and work with numbers

  Basic numeracy is essential for many jobs.

• having a good basic knowledge of arithmetic

  Employers want candidates who are numerate.

From Latin litteratura (writing). "The literature" (academic) = the body of published research on a topic.

1. written works regarded as having artistic merit

   She studies 19th-century literature.

2. the body of writing on a particular subject

   There is extensive literature on the topic.

"Literary fiction": serious novels with focus on character/style (vs. "genre fiction", sci-fi, mystery, romance).

• relating to literature

  He has literary ambitions.

American spelling; British: litre. Same pronunciation. Unit of metric volume = 1000 ml.

• (American) a metric unit of volume equal to 1000 milliliters

  Buy a two-liter bottle of soda.

British spelling; American: liter. Same word, same pronunciation.

• (British) a metric unit of volume equal to 1000 millilitres

  The car has a 1.6 litre engine.

• trash carelessly left in a public place

  The park was full of litter after the festival.

"Cat litter" = absorbent material for cat toilet boxes.

• a number of young animals born to one mother at one time

  The dog had a litter of six puppies.

• to make untidy with discarded items

  Don't litter the streets.

"Every cloud has a silver lining": proverb meaning every misfortune has some positive aspect.

• a layer of material on the inside of a garment or container

  His jacket has a silk lining.

Implies delay because of reluctance to leave. Different from "loiter" (which has a negative "hanging around suspiciously" connotation).

1. to stay in a place longer than necessary

   They lingered over coffee after the meal.

2. to be slow to disappear or die

   The smell of smoke lingered in the room.

"Eyeliner": cosmetic. "Pantyliner": small sanitary product. "Cruise liner" / "ocean liner": large passenger ship.

1. a large ship for passengers

   The ocean liner docked at New York.

2. a sheet or layer of material used to line something

   The trash can needs a new liner.

"Lifelong learning" = the idea of continuing education throughout one's life.

• lasting throughout a person's life

  They have been lifelong friends.

"On someone's coat-tails" = succeeding because of someone else's success. "Coat-tail effect" in politics = a popular candidate boosting other candidates from the same party.

• the long back parts of a formal coat

  He rode to victory on his predecessor's coat-tails.

Related: liberation, liberator, liberty. "Liberated" (adjective) sometimes used wryly to mean "stolen".

• to set free, especially from oppression

  The army liberated the city.

• the act of setting someone free from imprisonment or oppression

  The liberation of the city was celebrated with parades.

• a person who frees a country or person from oppression

  He was hailed as the nation's liberator.

"Statue of Liberty": French gift to US (1886). "Liberty, equality, fraternity": French Revolution motto. "Take liberties with" = act inappropriately familiar.

• freedom from oppression

  They fought for liberty.

"Liable to" + noun/verb = likely to. "Liable for" = legally responsible for. Related noun: liability.

1. legally responsible

   The company is liable for damages.

2. likely to do or experience something

   He's liable to lose his temper.

Antonym: asset. In law: "limited liability company" (LLC) shields owners from personal liability.

1. the state of being legally responsible

   The company accepted liability for the damage.

2. a person or thing that causes a disadvantage

   His temper is a liability.

Homophone with "lesson". From "less" + verb-forming "-en" (like "shorten", "weaken").

• to make or become less

  The medicine lessened the pain.

From Latin lex (law) + lator (proposer). "You can't legislate morality": a common political saying.

• to make or enact laws

  Congress legislated to ban the practice.

• laws considered collectively; the process of making laws

  The new legislation takes effect in January.

In US government, the three branches: legislative (Congress), executive (President), judicial (Courts).

• having the power to make laws

  The legislative branch passes the laws.

In the US, federal legislature = Congress (Senate + House). Most states have their own legislatures.

• the legislative body of a country or state

  The state legislature passed the bill unanimously.

• a person who makes laws; a member of a legislature

  Several legislators co-sponsored the bill.

Gender-neutral version of "layman". Also written "layperson". "In layman's terms" = explained without specialist jargon.

• a person without professional or specialized knowledge in a particular subject

  The book explains physics for the lay person.

From French flamboyer (to blaze). Originally described a wavy/flame-like style in Gothic architecture; now usually describes personalities or clothes.

• strikingly bold or colorful; showy

  He's known for his flamboyant style of dress.

Often positive ("lavish wedding", "lavish praise") but can imply excess.

• sumptuously rich or elaborate

  They threw a lavish party.

Always "lavish X on Y".

• to bestow in generous amounts

  She lavished attention on her grandchildren.

From Latin latus (broad). Equator = 0° latitude. Also figurative: "latitude" = freedom of action.

1. the angular distance of a place north or south of the equator

   London is at about 51 degrees north latitude.

2. freedom from restriction

   She was given great latitude in her work.

From Latin longus (long). Greenwich, England = 0° longitude (the prime meridian). The 1707 Scilly naval disaster prompted the British "Longitude Act" offering a prize for solving the longitude-at-sea problem.

• the angular distance of a place east or west of the prime meridian

  The ship's longitude was 30 degrees west.

From Latin altus (high). "High altitude" can cause altitude sickness (hypoxia) above ~2500 meters.

• the height of an object above a given level, especially sea level

  The plane was flying at an altitude of 30,000 feet.

Despite "-lord", used for any owner regardless of gender in modern formal/legal contexts; "landlady" is the explicitly female form, more common in everyday speech.

1. a person who rents out land or a building

   The landlord raised the rent.

2. (British) a person who runs a pub or boarding house

   The landlord poured him a pint.

• a woman who rents out land or a building

  She paid the landlady the deposit.

More common in British English. "Lads' night out" = a guys' night out. "Lad culture" (sociology) = a 1990s British male subculture.

• (informal) a boy or young man

  He's a good lad.

Now archaic except in the fixed phrase "kith and kin". From Old English cȳthth (knowledge, familiar friends).

• (archaic) one's friends or acquaintances

  He returned home to his kith.

"Kin" = blood relatives. "Kith" = friends. The phrase covers both.

• one's friends and relations

  They invited their kith and kin to the wedding.

More common in British English for road junctions. Also: railway junction (where two lines meet).

• a point where two or more things, especially roads or railways, meet

  Turn left at the next junction.

More common in American English for road junctions. Also used in geometry and set theory (the intersection of sets A and B).

• a point where two or more roads cross

  The accident happened at a busy intersection.

"Joy" can also be used as a countable noun for a specific pleasure ("the joys of parenthood").

• a feeling of great happiness

  Tears of joy streamed down her face.

Distinct from "joyous" (more formal) and "happy" (more general). "Joyful noise": biblical phrase often used in choirs.

• feeling or expressing great happiness

  It was a joyful celebration.

More literary than "joyful" or "happy".

• full of happiness and joy

  It was a joyous occasion.

• extremely happy; delighted

  They were overjoyed when she got the scholarship.

• to make a light ringing sound

  The keys jingled in his pocket.

Famous: "I'm Lovin' It" (McDonald's). "Jingle Bells" is a Christmas song, not a jingle in this technical sense.

• a short catchy tune used in advertising

  That radio jingle is stuck in my head.

American English; British equivalent: caretaker or custodian. From Latin janitor (doorkeeper), related to Janus, the Roman god of doorways.

• a person employed to clean and maintain a building

  The janitor unlocked the school each morning.

1. an uncomfortable sensation on the skin causing a desire to scratch

   She had a terrible itch on her back.

2. a strong restless desire

   He had an itch to travel.

• to feel or cause an itch

  His wool sweater made his skin itch.

"Itchy feet" (idiom) = restless desire to travel or change.

• causing or feeling an itch

  My new sweater is itchy.

Homophone with "right" and "write". "Rite of passage" = a ceremony marking transition to a new life stage (e.g., bar mitzvah, quinceañera, graduation).

• a religious or other solemn ceremony

  The church performs ancient burial rites.

Two senses: psychological (annoy) and physical (inflame skin or membranes). Both are common.

1. to make (someone) angry or annoyed

   His constant tapping irritated her.

2. to cause inflammation or discomfort in (a body part)

   The smoke irritated her eyes.

1. the state of feeling annoyed

   He sighed in irritation.

2. inflammation or discomfort in part of the body

   The cream relieves skin irritation.

"Irritable bowel syndrome" (IBS): common digestive disorder. Different from "irritated" (briefly annoyed): irritable describes character.

• easily annoyed

  He gets irritable when he's hungry.

Medical/chemical: substance that irritates skin/lungs. Figurative: "a minor irritant".

• something that causes irritation

  Smoke is a respiratory irritant.

• causing annoyance

  His humming is irritating.

Three main types: verbal (saying the opposite of what you mean), situational (outcome opposite to what was expected), and dramatic (audience knows what characters don't).

1. the expression of meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, often for humor

   "Lovely weather," she said with heavy irony as it rained.

2. a state of affairs that seems deliberately contrary to what one expects

   The irony is that he hated the very job he fought so hard to get.

Don't confuse with "sarcastic": sarcasm is a form of irony intended to mock or hurt; irony is broader and not always cruel.

• using or characterized by irony

  His comment was clearly ironic.

• in an ironic manner

  Ironically, the fire station burned down.

From in- (not) + variable. Antonym: variable.

• never changing

  His invariable response was a smile.

Stronger than "usually" or "often": implies no exceptions.

• in every case; always

  He invariably arrives late.

As a verb the stress is on the second syllable; as a noun, on the first.

• to arouse the curiosity or interest of

  The mystery intrigued her.

• the act of secretly plotting; a secret scheme

  The court was full of political intrigue.

• arousing curiosity or interest

  She raised an intriguing question.

• having one's curiosity or interest aroused

  She was intrigued by his story.

From Latin in + timidus (fearful). Same root as "timid" (added in batch 83).

• to frighten or threaten, especially to force a desired behavior

  He intimidated his opponents into silence.

• feeling frightened or anxious

  She felt intimidated by his aggressive manner.

• frightening or threatening

  He has an intimidating presence.

Two distinct senses. The "translate" sense is specifically for spoken language; for written text, "translate" is used.

1. to explain the meaning of

   Don't interpret my silence as agreement.

2. to translate orally between speakers of different languages

   She interpreted for the visiting dignitaries.

1. the act of explaining the meaning of something

   Her interpretation of the data was wrong.

2. a particular performance or rendering

   His interpretation of Hamlet was unconventional.

"Interpreter" = spoken language; "translator" = written text. The UN employs hundreds of interpreters for simultaneous interpretation.

• a person who translates between speakers of different languages

  They hired an interpreter for the meeting.

"Interpretive dance": expressive modern dance form. "Interpretive signs": explanatory placards at museums, parks, historical sites.

• relating to or providing an interpretation

  The park has many interpretive displays.

From Latin intellectus (understanding). Different from "intelligence": intellect emphasizes the capacity for thought; intelligence emphasizes the ability to learn and reason.

• the faculty of reasoning and understanding

  She is a woman of considerable intellect.

• relating to the intellect

  He pursued intellectual interests in his free time.

"Public intellectual" = a thinker whose ideas reach a general audience (e.g., Noam Chomsky, Susan Sontag).

• a person whose work involves thought and study

  The café was a gathering place for intellectuals.

In British English also: the group of students admitted to a school in a particular year ("the 2024 intake").

1. an amount of food, drink, or air taken into the body

   Reduce your daily salt intake.

2. the act of taking something in

   She gave a sharp intake of breath.

Often "insist on" (something/doing) or "insist that" (clause).

1. to demand firmly that something happen

   He insisted on paying for dinner.

2. to maintain firmly that something is true

   She insisted that she had not seen him.

• the act of insisting

  At his insistence, they left early.

• insisting or demanding something; not allowing refusal

  He was insistent that we accept his offer.

Alternative spelling: enquire (British convention: inquire = formal investigation; enquire = general asking). In American English, inquire covers both.

• to ask for information

  She inquired about the price.

• a person who asks for information

  The website answers questions from inquirers.

"Inquiring mind" = a mind that loves to learn and ask questions.

• showing interest in learning new things

  She has an inquiring mind.

In British English often stressed /ɪnˈkwaɪri/. A "public inquiry" = a formal investigation, usually after a disaster or scandal.

1. an act of asking for information

   We received several inquiries about the job.

2. an official investigation

   There will be a public inquiry into the disaster.

British variant of 'inquire'; in British usage often 'ask generally' vs 'inquire' = formal investigation.

• to ask for information

  She enquired about the train times.

"The Spanish Inquisition" - Catholic tribunal that persecuted heretics (1478-1834). "Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition!" - Monty Python sketch.

• a period of prolonged and intensive questioning or investigation

  She was subjected to an inquisition by the press.

British spelling. American (and increasingly British): "inquiry". Some pedants distinguish: "enquiry" = ask a question; "inquiry" = formal investigation. Largely interchangeable now.

• a request for information

  We had several enquiries about the job.

Stronger than "many" or "numerous": implies too many to count. Same root as "numerical" / "numerate".

• too many to be counted

  He has innumerable stories from his time abroad.

Past tense: inferred (double r). Common confusion: "infer" (the listener concludes) vs. "imply" (the speaker hints). The speaker implies; the listener infers.

• to deduce or conclude (information) from evidence

  From his expression, she inferred that he was lying.

• a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning

  We can draw several inferences from the data.

"Heavy industry" (steel, mining) vs. "light industry" (consumer goods) - a common economic classification.

1. economic activity concerned with the processing of raw materials or manufacture of goods

   The automotive industry employs millions of workers.

2. hard work; diligence

   Her success was built on industry and persistence.

"The Industrial Revolution" (1760-1840).

• relating to or characterized by industries

  The city has a large industrial zone.

British spelling: industrialise. "The Industrial Revolution" (1760-1840) was when Britain industrialized.

• to develop industries on a wide scale

  The country industrialized rapidly in the 19th century.

Common in formal contexts: induct into a Hall of Fame, induct into office, induct new members of an organization.

• to formally admit someone to a position or organization

  He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Distinct from "deduction". Induction reasons from specific to general; deduction reasons from general to specific.

1. the act of inducting someone into a position

   The induction ceremony was held in the cathedral.

2. reasoning that draws general conclusions from specific observations

   Scientific theories are often built by induction.

• characterized by the inference of general laws from particular instances

  Inductive reasoning.

Stronger than "annoyed"; implies moral offense. Related: indignation (noun), indignity (an offensive incident).

• feeling or showing anger at unfair treatment

  She was indignant at the suggestion that she had cheated.

• anger or annoyance provoked by unfair treatment

  He responded with righteous indignation.

• treatment or circumstances that cause a loss of self-respect

  He suffered the indignity of a public rejection.

Often associated with laughter ("snort with laughter") or contempt ("snort in disgust"). Also: snort (drug slang) = to inhale.

• to make a loud sound by breathing out forcefully through the nose

  The horse snorted and stamped its feet.

• an explosive sound made by breathing out through the nose

  He gave a snort of derision.

Past tense: incurred (double r). Always with negative things: "incur debts", "incur a penalty", "incur expenses".

• to bring (something unpleasant) on oneself

  He incurred huge debts during the campaign.

From Latin incurrere (to run into). Stronger and more formal than "visit" or "entry"; often military or hostile.

• a brief invasion or attack on enemy territory

  The army launched an incursion across the border.

Verb stress on second syllable; noun stress on first.

1. to lean or slope

   The road inclined steeply upward.

2. to tend toward an opinion

   I incline to think she's right.

"If you're so inclined" = if you feel like it.

• willing or disposed to do something

  I'm inclined to agree with you.

1. a tendency or desire to do something

   He had no inclination to argue.

2. a slope or angle

   The road has a slight inclination.

From Latin agitare (to drive, set in motion). "Agitator" can mean a political stirrer or a part of a washing machine.

1. to make someone troubled or nervous

   The news agitated her greatly.

2. to campaign actively for a cause

   They agitated for better working conditions.

• feeling or showing troubled nervousness

  He was agitated and could not sit still.

• a state of anxiety or nervous excitement

  She paced the room in agitation.

1. a person who urges others to protest or rebel, especially for political or social change

   The government accused outside agitators of stirring up the riots.

2. a mechanical device that stirs or shakes a liquid or mixture

   The washing machine's agitator spins the clothes through the water.

From "im-" (in) + "prison". Related noun: imprisonment.

• to put or keep in prison

  He was imprisoned for ten years.

"False imprisonment": legal claim for illegal detention. "Life imprisonment": most severe sentence in most countries that have abolished death penalty.

• the state of being imprisoned

  He faces ten years of imprisonment.

From Latin implicare (to fold in). Compare "implicit bias": unconscious prejudice.

1. suggested but not directly expressed

   There was an implicit threat in his words.

2. absolute and unquestioning

   She placed implicit trust in her doctor.

"Explicit" content warnings refer to sexual or violent material.

1. clearly stated, leaving no doubt

   She gave him explicit instructions.

2. describing sex or violence openly

   The film contains explicit scenes.

In grammar, the "imperative mood" expresses commands: "Stop!", "Look at this".

• of vital importance; crucial

  It is imperative that we act now.

1. an essential or urgent thing

   Reducing emissions is a moral imperative.

2. (grammar) a verb form expressing a command

   "Go!" is the imperative form of "to go".

From Latin illuminare (to light up). "Illuminated manuscripts" = medieval handwritten books decorated with gold and silver.

1. to light up

   Floodlights illuminated the building.

2. to help to clarify or explain

   Her comments illuminated the issue.

• lit up

  The illuminated sign was visible from miles away.

"Illumination" can also mean spiritual or intellectual enlightenment. "Illuminated manuscripts": medieval texts decorated with gold and bright colors.

• lighting; the action of illuminating

  The illumination came from a single lamp.

"Hybrid car" combines a gas engine with an electric motor (e.g., Toyota Prius). "Hybrid working" = mixing remote and office work.

1. the offspring of two animals or plants of different species or varieties

   A mule is a hybrid of a horse and a donkey.

2. a thing made by combining two different elements

   The car is a hybrid of sedan and SUV.

From Latin hospes (guest). Same root as "hospitable", "hospitality", "hostel", "hotel". American usage: "in the hospital". British: "in hospital" (no article).

• an institution providing medical and surgical treatment

  He spent two weeks in the hospital.

"The hospitality industry" = hotels, restaurants, tourism collectively.

• the friendly and generous reception of guests

  Thank you for your warm hospitality.

British spelling: hospitalise.

• to admit (someone) to a hospital for treatment

  She was hospitalized for pneumonia.

Often stressed on the first syllable in older usage. Modern dictionaries prefer second-syllable stress.

1. friendly and welcoming to guests

   They were extremely hospitable to us.

2. (of an environment) favorable for living or growth

   The desert is not hospitable to most plants.

American spelling; British: honour. Note the silent "h". "Your Honor" = address for a judge.

• (American) great respect or recognition

  It was an honor to meet her.

• (American) to regard with great respect; to fulfill an obligation

  The country honored its veterans.

British spelling; American: honor. Same pronunciation.

• (British) great respect or recognition

  She was awarded the highest honour.

American spelling; British: honourable. "The Honorable" (abbreviated Hon.) is a formal title for certain officials and dignitaries.

• (American) deserving of honor

  He served honorably in the war.

• (British) deserving of honour

  It was an honourable thing to do.

"Honorary doctorate" = a degree given without normal academic requirements, as recognition for achievement.

• given or held as an honor without the usual requirements or duties

  The university gave him an honorary degree.

Homophone with "horse". Common causes: shouting, singing too much, illness.

• (of a voice) sounding rough or harsh

  He had shouted himself hoarse at the game.

Etymology uncertain; possibly from "high" + "jack" (street greeting used to disarm victims). Modern figurative use: to take over ("the discussion was hijacked by one person").

1. to seize control of a vehicle, especially an aircraft, by force

   Terrorists hijacked the plane.

2. to take over and divert to a different purpose

   He hijacked the meeting to push his own agenda.

From Greek hierarkhes (chief priest). Famous: Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

• a system in which members are ranked by status or authority

  He worked his way up the corporate hierarchy.

• arranged in a hierarchy

  The company has a strict hierarchical structure.

Plural: heroes. Also a sandwich in American English (also called "sub", "hoagie", or "grinder" depending on region).

1. a person admired for courage or noble qualities

   The firefighters were hailed as heroes.

2. the chief male character in a story

   The hero of the novel is a young soldier.

• having the characteristics of a hero

  He made a heroic effort to save them.

Homophone with "heroin" (the drug). Spelling pitfall: "heroine" (the woman) has the -e; "heroin" (the drug) does not.

1. a woman admired for her courage or noble qualities

   She became a national heroine.

2. the chief female character in a story

   Jane Eyre is the heroine of the novel.

• great bravery, especially in danger

  The firefighter was honored for heroism.