Vocabulary: Batch 43

Antonym: unobtrusive (= subtle, not noticeable). Often negative : implies unwelcome attention.

• noticeable in an unwelcome way

  The new building is obtrusive in the historic neighborhood.

Opposite of "obtrusive". Often describes design, service, cameras, microphones, or behavior.

1. not attracting attention in a noticeable or annoying way

   The security cameras were small and unobtrusive.

2. quietly respectful and not forcing oneself into a situation

   The waiter was attentive but unobtrusive.

From Greek mythology: Mentor was Odysseus's friend who advised his son Telemachus. Modern: "mentorship programs" pair experienced people with newcomers.

• an experienced advisor

  She has been a mentor to many young writers.

• to advise or train someone, especially a younger colleague

  She mentors several junior employees.

"Car mechanic": the most common modern use. In video games, "mechanics" (plural) refers to the rules and systems of gameplay.

• a person skilled in operating or repairing machinery

  The mechanic fixed her car.

"Mechanical engineering": major engineering discipline. "Mechanical" can mean routine/automatic ("mechanical response").

• operated by machines; done routinely

  He gave a mechanical answer.

"Coping mechanism": psychological strategy for handling stress. "Mechanism of action": how a drug works.

• a system of parts working together

  The clock has a complex mechanism.

In British informal speech, often used as a strong intensifier ("massive thanks", "massive support").

• very large in size, amount, or extent

  The earthquake caused massive damage.

Common compounds: headache, backache, stomachache, toothache, heartache. Distinct from sharp pain: ache implies dull, continuous discomfort.

• to feel a continuous dull pain

  My back aches from sitting too long.

• a continuous dull pain

  She had an ache in her head.

• suffering from continuous, dull pain

  I feel tired and achy.

Often paired with positive adjectives for emphasis: "achingly beautiful", "achingly slow".

• to a degree that causes pain or longing; very intensely

  The melody was achingly beautiful.

In grammar (French, Spanish, German): the "masculine gender" of nouns. "Toxic masculinity": concept describing harmful traditional male behaviors.

• having qualities associated with men

  He has a deep, masculine voice.

• the qualities or attributes traditionally associated with men

  The film explores ideas about masculinity.

British spelling: masculinise. Often used about hormones or gender transition.

• to make masculine in character or appearance

  Testosterone treatment can masculinize the voice.

In grammar (French, Spanish, German): the "feminine gender" of nouns. As a personality descriptor, increasingly questioned for reinforcing gender stereotypes.

• having qualities associated with women

  She wore a feminine pink dress.

Often described in "waves": first-wave (suffrage), second-wave (1960s-80s rights), third-wave (1990s onward), fourth-wave (digital/intersectional).

• the advocacy of women's rights on the basis of equality

  She is a strong supporter of feminism.

"This is what a feminist looks like": popular slogan. Famous: bell hooks, Gloria Steinem, Audre Lorde, Roxane Gay.

• a person who supports feminism

  She has called herself a feminist since college.

"Maintain a position" (argue for it), "maintain a relationship", "maintain a building" - broad usage.

1. to keep in good condition by checking or repairing it regularly

   They maintain the road every spring.

2. to continue to have or do something

   She maintains a positive attitude.

"High-maintenance" (informal): person requiring much attention or care; usually slightly negative. "Maintenance window" (tech): scheduled downtime for system updates.

• the process of keeping something in good condition

  The car needs regular maintenance.

"Mainstream media" (MSM): major established news outlets, often used negatively. "Go mainstream": become widely popular.

• considered normal and accepted by most people

  Electric cars are becoming mainstream.

Also a short polite response: "Nice to meet you." - "Likewise."

• in the same way; also

  He waved, and she did likewise.

"Likely" can also function as an adverb in American English ("He will likely arrive late"), though some style guides prefer "probably".

• such as well might happen or be true; probable

  It's likely to rain later.

In statistics, "likelihood" has a specific technical meaning distinct from "probability" (Bayesian inference).

• the chance of something happening

  There's a strong likelihood of rain.

From Latin lumen (light). Same root as "illuminate", "luminary". Often used poetically about eyes, skin, or atmospheres.

• giving off light; shining brightly

  The luminous dial glowed in the dark.

1. the quality of being luminous; brightness

   The painting captures the luminosity of dawn.

2. (astronomy) the total amount of energy emitted by a star or other celestial object per unit time

   The Sun's luminosity has slowly increased over its lifetime.

Notorious confusion with "affect". General rule: "affect" is usually a verb, "effect" is usually a noun.

• a change that is a result of something

  The medicine had no effect.

Formal sense: "effect change" = bring about change. Don't confuse with "affect" (= influence).

• to cause (something) to happen

  The new policy effected major changes.

Derived from effect. Effective means producing the intended effect.

• successful in producing the intended result

  The new medicine is effective against the infection.

Formal/literary. Modern equivalents: "for fear that", "in case", "so that ... not". Famous: "Lest we forget" (Kipling), used on war memorials.

• with the intention of preventing

  He spoke quietly, lest he wake the baby.

From Latin legitimus (lawful). Historical: "legitimate child" = born to married parents (now archaic concept). Modern: "legit" (slang) = real/cool.

1. conforming to the law or to rules

   The business is completely legitimate.

2. valid or reasonable

   She has a legitimate concern.

British spelling: legitimise. From Latin "legitimus" (lawful). Political/social: also "legitimate" as verb (less common today).

• to make legal or accepted

  The vote legitimized the new government.

Short for "legitimate". Originally slang, now widely used informally. Common in Gen Z usage as adverb: "That movie was legit good".

• genuine or legitimate (informal)

  This is a legit business.

"Urban legend": modern folktale ("alligators in the sewers"). "Legend has it that...": common storytelling opener.

1. a traditional story sometimes regarded as historical

   The legend of King Arthur.

2. a very famous person

   Pelé is a soccer legend.

Often used hyperbolically: "legendary party", "legendary patience".

• described in or based on legends; remarkable enough to be famous

  He has legendary patience.

In tech: "legacy system/code" = old technology that's still in use (often pejorative, needs replacement). "Legacy admissions": controversial US college practice favoring children of alumni.

• something handed down from the past

  His legacy will live on for generations.

"Out of one's league" = beyond one's ability or status. "Major League": top-tier American baseball. "League of Legends": popular video game.

• a group of teams or organizations that compete

  She plays in the women's soccer league.

"Class action lawsuit": many plaintiffs sue together. The US is famously litigious: far more lawsuits per capita than most countries.

• a claim or dispute brought to court

  She filed a lawsuit against the company.

More everyday/journalistic than "legislator". Used for both individual politicians and the legislative process generally.

• a person who makes laws; a member of a legislature

  Lawmakers passed the bill yesterday.

From "kid" (child) + "nap" (snatch, old slang). Past tense: kidnapped. Famous: Lindbergh kidnapping (1932). Now applies to anyone, not just children.

• to abduct and hold captive, often for ransom

  He was kidnapped at gunpoint.

• a person who kidnaps someone

  The kidnappers demanded a large ransom.

• the crime of abducting someone and holding them captive

  He was charged with kidnapping.

Also used pejoratively for immature adult behavior ("juvenile humor", "juvenile prank").

1. relating to young people

   Juvenile crime has decreased.

2. childishly silly

   His behavior was juvenile.

Most legal systems treat young offenders separately from adults, emphasizing rehabilitation over punishment. Age cutoffs vary by jurisdiction.

• a court that hears cases involving minors

  The teenager appeared in juvenile court.

"Social justice": concept of fairness in society. "Justice": title for US Supreme Court members ("Justice Roberts"). "Bring to justice" = punish a criminal.

• fair treatment under the law

  They demanded justice for the victims.

"The end justifies the means": Machiavellian principle. In typography: "justify" means align text to both margins.

• to show or prove to be right

  How do you justify spending so much?

• having reasonable grounds

  His anger was justified.

"Justifiable homicide": legal term for killing in self-defense.

• able to be shown to be right

  The cost is justifiable given the benefits.

• a good reason for an action or belief

  There is no justification for his behavior.

• the presiding judge in a supreme court

  The chief justice of the United States.

Famous Martin Luther King Jr. quote: "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere."

1. lack of fairness or justice

   They campaigned against social injustice.

2. an unjust act

   The conviction was a great injustice.

"The jury is still out" (idiom) = no decision yet. US juries usually have 12 members. Some countries don't use juries.

• a group of people who decide questions of fact in a trial

  The jury found him guilty.

• a member of a jury

  Each juror was questioned individually.

American: "jug" usually means a large container (milk jug). British: also includes smaller table jugs (water jug, cream jug). "Jugband": folk band using everyday objects as instruments.

• a container with a handle and a spout, used for holding liquids

  She poured the milk from the jug.

"Judicial review": power of courts to invalidate laws or government actions. "Judicial activism": controversial term for judges who actively shape policy.

• relating to courts of law or judges

  The judicial branch interprets the laws.

One of the three branches of US government (judicial), alongside executive and legislative. "Independent judiciary": key feature of democracy.

• the judicial branch of government

  An independent judiciary is essential for democracy.

Don't confuse with "judicial". "Judicious" = wise; "judicial" = about courts.

• showing good judgment

  He made a judicious decision.

Many meanings: legal court, royal court, sports court (tennis, basketball). "Court" as verb = woo romantically (old-fashioned).

• a tribunal where legal cases are heard

  The case went to court.

Intermediate level between trial courts and the highest court. In the US: "Court of Appeals" (plural, there are several federal circuits).

• a court that reviews decisions of lower courts

  The decision was overturned by the Court of Appeal.

Common in military and government: formal panel investigating specific incidents.

• an official body that investigates a specific matter

  A court of inquiry was set up to investigate the accident.

More formal than just "court". Often used in solemn contexts: "In a court of law, you must tell the truth."

• a tribunal that decides legal cases

  They will settle the matter in a court of law.

• a period during which a couple develop a romantic relationship before getting married

  They had a brief courtship.

Famous: Walter Cronkite, Christiane Amanpour, Bob Woodward. Modern: "citizen journalism", non-professional reporting via blogs and social media.

• a person who writes for or edits a newspaper or news source

  She works as a journalist for a major newspaper.

• relating to journalism

  He maintains high journalistic standards.

"Investigative journalism", "yellow journalism" (sensationalist reporting) - common collocations.

• the activity of writing for newspapers, magazines, or news websites

  She studied journalism at university.

In sports (football, basketball): catch a pass intended for the other team. In intelligence: "intercept communications", wiretapping.

• to stop and seize

  The police intercepted the shipment.

"Interceptor missile" / "interceptor aircraft": designed to attack incoming threats.

• a vehicle or device used to intercept

  The jet was used as an interceptor.

Famous: Neville Chamberlain, UK PM whose 1938 appeasement of Hitler became synonymous with weakness. Historical role; rare today.

• an officer who managed the household of a monarch or noble

  The chamberlain announced the king's arrival.

Largely replaced by gender-neutral terms like "housekeeper" or "room attendant" in modern hospitality.

• a woman who cleans hotel rooms

  The chambermaid brought fresh towels.

American term. British equivalent: "interval". Usually 15-20 minutes; allows audience to use restrooms, buy refreshments.

• a short break in the middle of a play or concert

  We met for drinks during intermission.

"Interval training": alternating periods of high and low intensity exercise. In music, an "interval" is the distance between two notes.

• an intervening time

  There was a long interval between his visits.

Usually negative: implies unwanted intrusion. "Don't interfere" = mind your own business.

• to get involved in something that doesn't concern one

  Don't interfere in their argument.

In physics: "interference" = waves combining (sound, light). In radio/electronics: unwanted signals disrupting reception.

• the action of interfering

  We resent foreign interference in our elections.

"Intense" person: high-strung, focused, sometimes draining to be around.

• of extreme force or strength

  He felt intense pain in his back.

"Labor-intensive" / "capital-intensive": economic terms describing what a process requires most. "Intensive farming": high-input agriculture.

• concentrated on a single subject

  She took an intensive Spanish course.

• to make or become more intense

  The pain intensified overnight.

Abbreviated ICU (Intensive Care Unit). For critically ill patients; one-on-one nursing. "NICU" = neonatal intensive care unit (for premature babies).

• specialized medical care for seriously ill patients

  He spent a week in intensive care.

"Integrated circuit" (IC): the basic building block of modern electronics. "Racial integration": historical term for desegregation in the US.

1. to combine into a single whole

   The new software integrates with our system.

2. to bring people of different races into equal association

   They worked to integrate the schools.

"Racial integration", "system integration" - common collocations.

• the action of combining parts into a whole

  European integration has progressed slowly.

Common in names: MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Pratt Institute. As a verb: "institute a policy" = put it in place.

• an organization with a particular purpose, especially academic

  He works at a research institute.

"Institution" can mean a long-established organization (Harvard is an institution) or an entrenched cultural practice (marriage is an institution).

• a large important organization

  Universities are educational institutions.

"Institutional racism", "institutional investor" - common collocations.

• relating to an institution

  The report criticized institutional racism in policing.

Largely replaced by "mentally ill" in clinical contexts. Used hyperbolically in everyday speech: "That price is insane!"

• in a state of mind that prevents normal perception

  He was declared legally insane.

Often attributed to Einstein: "The definition of insanity is doing the same thing over and over and expecting different results" (he probably didn't say it).

• the state of being seriously mentally ill

  He pleaded insanity as a defense.

From Latin innovare (to renew). Tech industry buzzword: "innovate or die".

• to make changes in something established by introducing new ideas

  The company innovates constantly.

Often paired with "disruption" in tech-speak.

• a new idea, method, or product

  The iPhone was a major innovation.

• featuring new methods; advanced and original

  They have an innovative approach to teaching.

In "diffusion of innovations" theory: "innovators" are the first 2.5% to adopt a new technology.

• a person who introduces new ideas

  He is one of the great innovators in his field.

American baseball term. British cricket equivalent: "innings" (always plural form). Baseball has 9 innings; tied games go to "extra innings".

• a unit of play in baseball

  He hit a home run in the seventh inning.

In finance, "contagion" describes how a crisis spreads from one country to another (e.g., 2008 financial crisis). "Contagion": 2011 Steven Soderbergh pandemic film.

• the spread of a disease by contact

  They tried to prevent the contagion.

Often distinguished from "infectious": contagious requires direct contact; infectious can spread by air, water, etc. In everyday use the words overlap.

• (of a disease) spread by contact

  Chickenpox is highly contagious.

"Indulge yourself": common phrase encouraging guilt-free pleasure (often in marketing for treats).

• to allow oneself to enjoy something

  She indulged in a chocolate sundae.

In Catholic history: "indulgences", partial remissions of punishment for sins, controversially sold for money (a major trigger of the Protestant Reformation).

• the action of indulging; a thing indulged in

  Chocolate is her one indulgence.

"Indulgent parents": those who give children too much. "Self-indulgent" = excessively focused on one's own pleasure.

• having or showing a tendency to be overly generous

  His grandmother was very indulgent.

In law: "immune from prosecution", protected from being charged. "Diplomatic immunity": diplomats can't be prosecuted in host countries.

1. protected against a particular disease

   She is immune to chickenpox.

2. not affected by something

   No one is immune to criticism.

Includes white blood cells, antibodies, lymphatic system. Weakened by HIV, chemotherapy, autoimmune diseases.

• the body's system for defending against disease

  Vaccines train the immune system to fight pathogens.

"Herd immunity", "diplomatic immunity", "immunity from prosecution" - common collocations.

• the ability of the body to resist a disease; exemption from a duty or penalty

  Vaccines provide immunity against the virus.

Often used negatively ("rigid ideology"). Major ideologies: capitalism, socialism, liberalism, conservatism, fascism, communism.

• a system of ideas forming the basis of a theory

  He embraced a free-market ideology.

• based on or relating to a system of ideas

  The conflict was ideological as well as religious.

"Light bulb moment": when an idea suddenly comes. "Get an idea" = realize, understand.

• a thought, suggestion, or plan

  That's a great idea!

"Ideal" = perfect; "idealistic" = unrealistically hopeful. "Ideal weight": medically defined optimal body weight (controversial).

• most suitable; perfect

  This is the ideal time to start.

In philosophy: "idealism" (Plato, Kant, Hegel), reality is fundamentally mental, not material. Opposed to materialism.

• the practice of forming or pursuing ideals

  His youthful idealism faded over time.

British spelling: idealise. "Idealize the past": common nostalgic tendency.

• to regard as perfect or better than in reality

  He idealizes his childhood.

In tech: "app icon", the small image you tap. In religion: Orthodox "icons" are painted religious images. "Pop icon", "style icon": culturally influential figures.

1. a small symbol on a computer screen

   Click the icon to launch the app.

2. a person or thing regarded as a symbol

   She is a fashion icon.

Overused: many use "iconic" to mean merely "famous" or "good". Strict use: deeply representative of a culture or era.

• widely recognized and admired as symbolic

  The Statue of Liberty is iconic.

"Howl at the moon": wolves famously do this. "Howl": famous 1955 poem by Allen Ginsberg.

• to make a long loud cry

  The wolves howled in the distance.

• a long, loud, mournful cry

  A howl of pain echoed through the house.

From Greek hormon (setting in motion). Common: estrogen, testosterone, insulin, adrenaline, cortisol.

• a chemical substance produced in the body that controls activity of cells

  Adrenaline is a hormone.

Sometimes used dismissively about emotional behavior ("she's just hormonal"): often considered sexist when applied to women.

• relating to hormones

  She has hormonal imbalances.

"Highlights" can mean lighter strands of hair, the best parts of an event, or text marked with a highlighter.

• an outstanding part of an event

  The trip's highlight was visiting the museum.

• to draw attention to

  The report highlights several problems.

From Latin herba (plant) + vorare (to devour). Contrast: carnivore (meat-eater), omnivore (both), insectivore (insect-eater).

• an animal that feeds on plants

  Cows are herbivores.

• feeding only on plants

  Most dinosaurs were herbivorous.

The "-cide" suffix means "killer" (homicide, suicide, pesticide). Famous: Roundup (glyphosate), most-used herbicide worldwide, controversial for health concerns.

• a substance that destroys plants, especially weeds

  Farmers spray herbicide to kill weeds.

Formal/academic. "Three days hence" (archaic) = three days from now. "Hence the name": common phrase explaining the origin of a name.

• for this reason; therefore

  He had no map; hence he got lost.

• from this time on or from that time on

  Henceforth, supervisors will report directly to the manager.

• from this time on or from that time on

  Henceforward he would be careful.

"Gut feeling" / "gut reaction": intuitive response. "Gut microbiome": bacteria living in the intestine (major research area).

• the stomach or intestines

  He felt a sharp pain in his gut.

"Gutted" (British informal) = extremely disappointed.

1. to remove the intestines from

   He gutted the fish.

2. to destroy the interior of (a building)

   The fire gutted the old church.

Disapproving slang.

• lacking courage or determination

  His gutless response disappointed everyone.

"Gross" (informal) = disgusting. "Gross income": total income before deductions (vs. "net"). "Gross negligence": extreme carelessness (legal term).

1. (informal) disgusting

   Eww, that's gross!

2. (of income) before deductions

   His gross salary is $100,000.

"Grim Reaper": personification of death (skeleton with scythe). "Brothers Grimm": collected the famous fairy tales ("Grimm" is a German surname, unrelated etymologically).

• very serious or gloomy

  The doctor's expression was grim.

"Stages of grief", Kübler-Ross model: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance. "Good grief!" (Charlie Brown's catchphrase) = expression of frustration.

• deep sorrow, especially caused by death

  Her grief was overwhelming.

1. to feel intense sorrow, especially over a death

   She is still grieving for her mother.

2. to cause great distress to someone

   It grieved him to see his children suffer.

In labor and HR contexts, "file a grievance" is the standard phrase.

• a real or imagined cause for complaint, especially regarding unfair treatment

  Workers filed a grievance against the company.

One of the seven deadly sins. Famous: "Greed is good", Gordon Gekko in the film Wall Street (1987).

• intense and selfish desire for something

  His greed for power destroyed him.

• having or showing greed

  Don't be so greedy with the cake.

Famously described by Newton (1687) and reformulated by Einstein's general relativity (1915). On Earth: 9.8 m/s² acceleration toward the center.

1. the force that attracts objects toward each other

   Gravity keeps us on the ground.

2. seriousness or solemnity

   The gravity of the situation hit them.

"Graphic novel", "graphic violence", "graphic design" - common collocations.

• relating to visual art or in vivid detail

  The report contained graphic descriptions of the crime scene.

• a visual image or design

  The presentation included several colorful graphics.

"Graphical user interface" (GUI): the visual interface of modern software, as opposed to command-line interfaces.

• relating to visual art, especially design or graphics

  The software has a graphical user interface.

"Glare" can also mean strong bright light ("the glare of the sun"). "Glare ice": extremely smooth slippery ice on roads.

• to stare angrily

  She glared at him across the room.

• a strong angry stare; very bright light

  He turned the glare of the spotlight on her.

• highly obvious or conspicuous

  A glaring error.

"Gather round": invite people to come close. "I gather that..." = I understand that (from inference).

1. to come or bring together

   They gathered in the town square.

2. to collect or pick

   She gathered the apples into a basket.

"Hunter-gatherer": pre-agricultural human lifestyle, still followed by some tribal societies (e.g., Hadza, San).

• a person who gathers something

  Early humans were hunters and gatherers.

• an assembly of people

  It was a small family gathering.

Rare and somewhat archaic. Most commonly used in religious / Zionist contexts: "ingathering of the exiles" (Hebrew kibbutz galuyot), referring to the return of the Jewish diaspora to Israel.

• to gather in or collect together, especially harvested crops or scattered people

  The ingathering of the exiles is a central theme in Zionist thought.

"Last gasp" = final dying effort. "Gasping for breath" = struggling to breathe (after exertion, or from emotion/shock).

• to draw in breath sharply

  She gasped when she saw the bill.

• a short, sharp intake of breath, especially from shock or pain

  The audience let out a collective gasp.

"The Final Frontier": Star Trek's tagline (space). "American frontier": historical westward expansion (1800s). "Frontier of knowledge": the edge of what's understood.

1. a border between two countries

   They crossed the frontier into France.

2. the limit of knowledge or activity in a field

   This is a new frontier in medicine.

Often the sound of effort (lifting weights) or displeasure. Pigs grunt. "Grunt work": boring, low-status tasks. Military slang: "grunt" = infantryman.

• to make a low short sound

  He grunted as he lifted the weight.

Military slang: a "grunt" = an infantryman.

1. a low, short sound

   He gave a grunt of approval.

2. (informal, military) an infantry soldier

   The grunts were exhausted after the march.

In tech: "web framework" (React, Django, Rails), pre-built code structures for building applications.

• a basic structure underlying a system

  They developed a framework for analysis.

Also called "curse word", "cuss word", "profanity", "bad word". "F-bomb": common euphemism for the F-word.

• an offensive or vulgar word

  He used a swear word in front of the children.

Homophone with "fowl" (= bird). "Foul mouth": habit of swearing. "Foul play": suspicious or illegal action.

• offensive to the senses; disgusting

  There was a foul smell from the drain.

• (sports) an unfair act against an opponent

  He committed a foul in the penalty area.

"Foul out" - basketball term for a player disqualified after too many fouls.

• to commit a foul against (an opponent) in a sport

  He was fouled just outside the penalty area.

"Foster care" = temporary home for children. "Foster parent" / "foster child": common terms. Distinct from adoption (which is permanent).

1. to encourage the development of

   The school fosters creativity.

2. to bring up (a child) as one's own without being a biological parent

   They fostered three children before adopting them.

From Latin forum (public square in ancient Rome, e.g., the Roman Forum). Modern: "online forum" = discussion board (Reddit, vBulletin).

• a place for public discussion

  The conference is a forum for new ideas.

Modern: "gender-fluid", not fixed to a single gender. "Brake fluid", "lighter fluid": common household fluids.

• a substance that flows, like a liquid or gas

  The patient needs more fluids.

• able to flow easily; changeable

  The situation is still fluid.

"Flexible hours" / "flexible working": increasingly popular employment arrangement. "Flex" (slang) = show off.

1. capable of bending without breaking

   The wire is flexible.

2. able to change to suit new conditions

   She has a flexible schedule.

"Filter" in social media: an Instagram/Snapchat effect applied to photos. "Spam filter" : email feature to block junk mail.

• a device for removing impurities from a liquid or gas

  He changed the water filter.

• to pass through a filter

  Sunlight filtered through the curtains.

• the action or process of passing something through a filter to remove impurities

  The water purifier uses a four-stage filtration system.

Note the silent "u". From French. "Fatigues" (plural): military camouflage uniforms. "Compassion fatigue": emotional exhaustion from constant exposure to others' suffering.

• extreme tiredness

  She suffered from chronic fatigue.

• extremely tired

  She felt fatigued after the long flight.

From "fatigue". Same form for present participle of verb and adjective. "Mentally fatiguing": common collocation.

• making one very tired

  It was a fatiguing journey.

Famous extinct species: dodos, woolly mammoths, dinosaurs. "Mass extinction events": five major ones in Earth's history; possibly a sixth happening now.

• no longer in existence

  Dinosaurs have been extinct for millions of years.

• the state or process of a species, family, or larger group being or becoming extinct

  The extinction of the dinosaurs.

"External hard drive": portable storage. "External" affairs = foreign affairs (in some countries' government departments).

• belonging to or on the outside

  The medicine is for external use only.

"Extend a hand": offer help or greeting. "Extend an invitation": offer to come.

• to make longer or larger

  They extended the deadline by a week.

"Browser extension": add-on software. "Hair extension": added length/volume of hair.

• a part added to something to enlarge or prolong it

  They built an extension on the house.

• able to be extended

  The table is extendable to seat ten.

"Extended family": beyond immediate (parents/children), including aunts, uncles, cousins, etc.

• longer than usual; made longer

  They had an extended discussion.

"Extensive": covering a wide area. "Intensive": concentrated. Easy to confuse.

• covering or affecting a large area

  The storm caused extensive damage.

"Internet Explorer": Microsoft's web browser (largely retired in 2022, replaced by Edge). "Explore mode" / "explore page": common in apps.

1. to travel through (an unfamiliar area) in order to learn about it

   They explored the cave.

2. to investigate or examine

   She wants to explore new ideas.

"Space exploration", "oil exploration" - common collocations.

• the action of exploring an unfamiliar area or subject

  Space exploration has advanced rapidly this decade.

Famous: Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Magellan, Captain Cook, Roald Amundsen.

• a person who explores a new place

  Magellan was a famous explorer.

"Exploratory surgery": done to investigate symptoms when a diagnosis is unclear. "Exploratory committee": political group testing whether to run for office.

• relating to or involving exploration

  They did exploratory drilling for oil.

Verb stress on second syllable; noun stress on first. Verb is mostly negative (exploit workers); noun is more positive (a daring exploit).

• to make full use of, especially unfairly

  The company exploits its workers.

In hacking: "exploit" = a piece of code that takes advantage of a software vulnerability.

• a bold or daring feat

  His exploits became legendary.

"Worker exploitation", "exploitation of natural resources" - common critical usages.

• the action of treating someone unfairly to benefit from their work

  The report exposed the exploitation of migrant workers.

"Expert witness" - legal term for a specialist called to testify.

• a person with special knowledge or skill in a particular field

  She's an expert in marine biology.

• having comprehensive knowledge or skill in a field

  He gave expert advice on the investment.

"Area of expertise": common phrase. Note the French-style pronunciation ("-eez" not "-ize").

• expert skill or knowledge in a particular field

  She has expertise in tax law.

Famous: Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804-06), Shackleton's Antarctic expedition (1914-17), Apollo 11 (1969).

• a journey undertaken for a specific purpose

  They went on an expedition to Antarctica.

Famous: British Expeditionary Force (BEF) in both World Wars. American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) in WWI under Pershing.

• an army sent abroad on military operations

  The expeditionary force landed in France.

Common in customer service: "expedite" your order = process it faster.

• to make happen sooner or more quickly

  Please expedite the shipment.

Formal. Common in legal/business writing: "expeditious resolution".

• done with speed and efficiency

  They demand an expeditious response.

"Exotic dancer": euphemism for stripper. "Exotic pet": non-traditional, often controversial (snakes, monkeys, big cats).

• originating in or characteristic of a distant foreign country

  She loves exotic flowers.

In art history: 19th-century European fascination with non-Western cultures, often Orientalist and problematic by modern standards.

• the quality of being exotic

  The painting captures the exoticism of the marketplace.

"Exotica" was also a 1950s/60s American musical genre evoking imagined tropical paradises (e.g., Martin Denny).

• exotic things considered as a group

  His collection includes various exotica from Asia.

"In exile" / "government-in-exile". Famous exiles: Napoleon (Elba, Saint Helena), Dalai Lama, Trotsky. Taylor Swift song "exile".

• the state of being barred from one's native country

  He lived in exile for ten years.

• to expel and bar (someone) from their native country

  The dictator exiled his political rivals.

"President-elect": winner of a presidential election who has not yet been inaugurated. "Elective surgery": non-emergency operation.

1. to choose by voting

   They elected her as president.

2. to formally choose to do something

   He elected to take early retirement.

• relating to elections or voters

  They are calling for electoral reform.

In the US, the body that formally elects the president based on state results.

• a body of representatives who formally cast votes to elect a leader, notably the US president

  He won the electoral college despite losing the popular vote.

• a person who has the right to vote in an election

  The US Electoral College consists of electors.

• to elect (someone) to a further term of office

  He was re-elected as president.

• a formal process of choosing someone for a public office by voting

  The presidential election is held every four years.

"Elective surgery": not medically urgent, scheduled by patient choice. "Elective course": chosen by student, not required.

• chosen rather than required

  She took an elective course in art history.

"Exceed expectations": common phrase in performance reviews. "Exceed the speed limit": common traffic offense.

• to be greater than (a number or amount)

  The cost exceeded our budget.

Slightly formal/literary. Modern equivalents: "extremely", "very".

• to a very great extent

  She was exceedingly polite.

"In excess of" = more than. "To excess" = too much ("drink to excess"). British insurance: "excess" = deductible (the amount you pay before insurance covers the rest).

• an amount of something more than necessary

  There was an excess of food at the party.

• more than is necessary or desirable

  The fine was excessive.

Airlines charge fees for baggage exceeding weight or size limits. Used figuratively for emotional burdens too ("emotional excess baggage").

• luggage that exceeds the airline's weight or size allowance

  He had to pay $100 for excess baggage.

Note: the "x" is pronounced /ɡz/, not /ks/. From Latin exaggerare (to heap up). "I'm not exaggerating": common emphasis.

• to represent as larger or greater than reality

  He always exaggerates his achievements.

• represented as larger or greater than is really the case

  She gave an exaggerated sigh.

• a statement that represents something as bigger or better than it really is

  Calling it a masterpiece would be an exaggeration.

Mostly used for prisoners, occasionally for residents of mental hospitals or other institutions.

• a person confined to a prison or institution

  The prison houses 500 inmates.

From Latin evolvere (to unroll). "Evolve" is often used loosely: strictly, only populations evolve over generations, not individuals over their lifetimes.

1. to develop gradually

   His ideas have evolved over time.

2. (biology) to develop through natural selection

   Whales evolved from land mammals.

Theory developed by Darwin ("On the Origin of Species", 1859). "Theory" in science means a well-supported explanation, NOT "just a guess".

• the process by which species develop over generations

  He studies the evolution of birds.

"Evolutionary psychology": controversial field applying evolution to human behavior. "Evolutionary biology": well-established field.

• relating to evolution

  It was an evolutionary adaptation.

Often used in religion-vs-science debates, especially in the US.

• a person who believes in the theory of evolution

  He's a committed evolutionist.

"Real estate" (US) = property; the industry of buying/selling property. "Estate": the assets of a deceased person. "Estate car" (British) = station wagon (American).

1. a large area of land owned by one person or family

   They visited the duke's estate.

2. all the money and property a person owns

   He left his entire estate to his daughter.

American term. British equivalent: "property". Real estate is the most common asset class for individual wealth in many countries.

• property consisting of land or buildings

  She works in real estate.

"In essence" = essentially. "Vanilla essence": concentrated extract used in baking.

• the basic, real, or invariable nature of a thing

  The essence of his argument was simple.

"Essential oils": concentrated plant extracts (lavender, peppermint, etc.). "Essential workers": COVID-era term for those whose jobs require physical presence (healthcare, grocery, transit).

• absolutely necessary

  Water is essential for life.

Common verbal filler in informal speech. More formal alternatives: "fundamentally", "basically"; related to essence (the core nature of something).

• used to emphasize the basic nature of something

  His argument is essentially correct.

• the things that are absolutely necessary; the basic elements

  Pack only the essentials for the trip.

"Erect" can mean upright ("erect posture") or sexually aroused. From Latin erigere (to raise up).

• rigidly upright or straight

  He stood with an erect posture.

• to put up or build (a structure)

  They erected a monument.

Both "erection of a building" (formal/construction) and the sexual sense exist. Context determines meaning.

• the action of erecting a structure or thing

  The erection of the bridge took two years.

From Latin aequi (equal) + valens (worth). In currency: "100 dollars is equivalent to about 740 yuan".

• equal in value, amount, or meaning

  One pound is equivalent to 16 ounces.

• a thing that is equal in value to another

  The British equivalent of the FBI is MI5.