Vocabulary: Batch 48

Often used in the proverb "desperate times call for drastic measures". Adverb: drastically.

• likely to have a strong or far-reaching effect; extreme

  The company took drastic measures to cut costs.

• in a way likely to have a strong or far-reaching effect

  Sales dropped drastically last quarter.

"Doze off" = to drift into light sleep, especially unintentionally.

• to sleep lightly or for a short time

  He dozed in the armchair after lunch.

In American English, used as both adjective and adverb ("downward trend", "head downward"). British prefers "downwards" for the adverb.

• moving or facing toward a lower place or level

  The economy is on a downward trend.

British prefers "downwards" as adverb; American prefers "downward". "Downward dog" is a famous yoga pose.

• toward a lower place or level

  The path slopes downwards to the river.

Short for "dormitory". In US universities, dorms are individual residence buildings. In British boarding schools, a "dorm" is a room with multiple beds.

• (informal) a dormitory

  She lives in the freshman dorm.

"Doomscrolling" = compulsively scrolling through negative news. "Doom" is also a famous 1993 first-person shooter video game.

• death, destruction, or some terrible fate

  He felt a sense of impending doom.

• likely to have an unfortunate outcome

  The project was doomed from the start.

"Doomsday Clock": a symbolic clock maintained by atomic scientists; how close it is to midnight indicates how close humanity is to catastrophe.

• the day of final judgment; a time of disaster

  They predicted doomsday for the millennium.

In British English, also called a "diversion" when traffic is rerouted.

• a longer or alternative route taken to avoid something

  We took a detour around the roadworks.

From Latin diversus (turned different ways). Same root as "divert" and "diverge". Increasingly used to mean ethnically/culturally varied ("a diverse team").

• showing a great deal of variety; very different

  The country has a diverse population.

Investment advice: "diversify your portfolio" = spread investments across different assets to reduce risk.

• to make or become more varied

  The company diversified into new markets.

In British English also: a detour around a roadblock. Magic trick: a diversion distracts the audience from the real action.

1. something that takes attention away from something else

   She used the noise as a diversion.

2. a pleasant or entertaining activity

   Reading is a welcome diversion.

"DEI" = Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion: a corporate/institutional initiative.

• the state of being diverse; variety

  The school celebrates cultural diversity.

Slightly old-fashioned. Modern equivalent: "entertaining".

• amusing or entertaining

  It was a diverting little story.

"Disturbed" can also describe mentally unwell ("emotionally disturbed children").

1. to interfere with someone's peace or work

   Please do not disturb.

2. to worry or upset

   The news disturbed her deeply.

"Civil disturbance": public disorder/protest. "Disturbance in the Force": famous Star Wars phrase.

• the interruption of a settled and peaceful condition

  There was a disturbance in the street.

1. suffering from emotional or mental problems

   The hospital treats disturbed children.

2. worried or anxious

   She seemed disturbed by his question.

Often used in content warnings: "disturbing images".

• causing anxiety or worry

  He had a disturbing dream.

Used to belittle the importance of something ("a mere $10" = only $10). Doesn't usually take comparative/superlative.

• used to emphasize that something is no more than what it is

  He's a mere child.

• only; just

  I was merely asking a question.

"In distress": for ships, a formal call indicating danger; the international distress signal is "Mayday".

1. extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain

   The news caused her great distress.

2. the state of a ship or person needing urgent assistance

   They radioed a distress signal.

In fashion, "distressed" clothing/furniture is deliberately worn-looking.

• suffering anxiety, sorrow, or pain

  He was distressed to hear the news.

• causing anxiety, sorrow, or pain

  The images from the disaster zone were distressing.

From Latin dis (apart) + sentire (to feel). In US Supreme Court, the "dissent" is the minority opinion.

• to hold or express opinions that differ from those commonly or officially held

  Only two judges dissented from the majority opinion.

Noun stress on first syllable /ˈdɪsent/; verb stress on second /dɪˈsent/.

• the expression of opinions at variance with those commonly held

  The regime crushed all acts of dissent.

• a person who dissents

  The dissenters were silenced.

• disagreement that leads to discord

  There was dissension within the ranks.

Stronger than "disappointment"; weaker than "horror". Combines surprise and distress.

• concern and distress caused by something unexpected

  She watched in dismay as her car was towed away.

More formal than "reveal" or "tell".

• to make (secret information) known

  He refused to disclose the source.

In law/finance, "full disclosure" is a key principle: parties must reveal all material information.

• the action of making new or secret information known

  The disclosure caused a scandal.

"In my opinion" (IMO) is a common conversational and internet abbreviation. "A matter of opinion" = a subjective judgment, not a fact.

• a view or judgment about something, not necessarily based on fact

  In my opinion, the movie was too long.

Usually slightly negative: implies stubborn or rigid views. In software, an "opinionated framework" makes strong design decisions for you.

• conceitedly assertive and dogmatic in one's opinions

  He's an opinionated and difficult colleague.

Original card-game sense: to throw down (a card) from one's hand. Now used generally.

• to get rid of (something) as no longer useful

  Discard the old packaging.

"Suspension of disbelief": Coleridge's phrase for the willingness to accept the premises of fiction.

• inability or refusal to accept that something is true

  She stared at him in disbelief.

• to be unable or unwilling to believe

  He disbelieved every word of her story.

From Italian dis- (bad) + astro (star): originally referring to an unfavorable astrological aspect. "Natural disaster" vs. "man-made disaster": common distinction.

• a sudden event causing great damage or suffering

  The earthquake was a major disaster.

Note: NO "e" before the "-rous" (unlike disaster). Common mispronunciation/misspelling: "disasterous" (wrong).

• causing great damage

  The fire had disastrous consequences.

In tech contexts: "disable" = turn off (as opposed to "enable" = turn on).

1. to make (something) unable to function

   He disabled the alarm system.

2. to deprive of physical or mental ability

   The accident disabled him for life.

"Person-first" language often preferred: "a person with a disability" rather than "a disabled person", though both are widely used.

• having a physical or mental condition that limits movement, senses, or activities

  The building is accessible to disabled visitors.

"Disability rights" movement: Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990) is landmark US law. "Person-first" language increasingly preferred: "person with a disability".

• a physical or mental condition that limits movement, senses, or activities

  The law protects people with disabilities.

In EU law, a "directive" is a binding result that member states must achieve via their own legislation. More formal than "order" or "instruction".

• an official instruction or order

  The committee issued a new directive.

"Dollar diplomacy", "gunboat diplomacy", "ping-pong diplomacy": famous types named for their primary tool.

1. the profession of managing international relations

   The conflict was resolved through diplomacy.

2. skill in dealing with people in sensitive situations

   She handled the argument with great diplomacy.

• an official who represents one country's interests in another

  She works as a diplomat at the embassy.

"Diplomatic immunity" = legal exemption of diplomats from prosecution in the host country.

1. relating to diplomacy

   The two countries cut diplomatic ties.

2. tactful in dealing with people

   She gave a diplomatic answer.

More formal than "imprison". "Mass incarceration": major political issue in the US, which has the world's largest prison population.

• to imprison or confine

  He was incarcerated for ten years.

• the state of being imprisoned

  He served ten years of incarceration.

"Money-back guarantee" - common retail promise. Distinct from "warranty", which usually covers manufacturing defects specifically.

• a formal promise that certain conditions will be fulfilled

  The product comes with a five-year guarantee.

• to promise formally that something will happen

  I can't guarantee the package will arrive on time.

Common in rental agreements, especially for young tenants: parents often serve as guarantors.

• a person who promises to pay another person's debt or fulfill an obligation if they cannot

  His father acted as guarantor for the loan.

More formal than "hold" or "keep". Common in legal/police contexts.

1. to keep (someone) from proceeding by holding them back

   The police detained him for questioning.

2. to delay or hold up

   I was detained at work.

In schools, "detention" = staying after school as punishment. "Indefinite detention": a controversial practice in some legal systems.

1. the action of detaining or being detained

   He spent three days in police detention.

2. a punishment in which a student is kept after school

   She got detention for being late again.

• a person held in custody, especially by police or military

  The detainee asked to speak with a lawyer.

Don't confuse with "definitive" (final, authoritative). In grammar: "definite article" = "the"; "indefinite article" = "a/an".

• clearly stated or decided; not vague

  We need a definite answer by tomorrow.

Common spelling mistake: "definately" (wrong). Memory aid: "there is a FINITE in defiNITEly".

• without doubt; certainly

  I will definitely come to your party.

"High-definition" (HD): clear and detailed (of an image or video).

• a statement of the exact meaning of a word

  The dictionary gives several definitions.

More authoritative than "definite". "The definitive biography" = the best, most complete one.

• done or reached decisively; authoritative

  It is the definitive guide to the subject.

"Indefinite leave to remain": UK immigration status. "Indefinite article": grammar term for "a/an".

• lasting for an unknown or unstated length of time

  The meeting was postponed indefinitely.

• for an unlimited or unspecified period of time

  They were detained indefinitely.

As a noun, stress is on first syllable; as a verb (= to leave one's country/group), on second.

• a flaw or imperfection

  The car had a manufacturing defect.

• imperfect or faulty

  The product was defective and had to be returned.

Common during the Cold War: defectors from the USSR included spies, dancers, athletes.

• a person who abandons their country or cause for another

  He was a defector from the Soviet Union.

"By default" = if no other choice is made. "Win by default" = win because the opponent didn't show up.

1. a preselected option adopted when no alternative is specified

   Leave the settings on default.

2. failure to meet a financial obligation

   The company is in default on its loans.

• to fail to fulfill an obligation

  They defaulted on their mortgage payments.

Formal/legal. More everyday: "consider" or "think".

• to regard as; consider

  The court deemed the evidence inadmissible.

Often used in payroll: "taxes are deducted from your paycheck". The noun form is deduction.

• to subtract or take away from a total

  They deducted $50 for damages.

From Latin dedicare (to declare, devote). Authors dedicate books; people dedicate their lives.

1. to devote (time, effort, or oneself) to a particular task

   She dedicated her life to teaching.

2. to formally address a book or work to (someone)

   He dedicated the novel to his late wife.

In computing, "dedicated server" = a server used by only one client.

• devoted to a task or purpose

  She is a dedicated teacher.

1. the quality of being committed to a task

   Her dedication to her work is impressive.

2. the words at the beginning of a book dedicating it to someone

   The dedication was to his parents.

"Decide on" + noun = choose. "Decide to" + verb = resolve to do.

• to make a choice from a number of alternatives

  She decided to take the job.

"Decision fatigue": psychological phenomenon where decision quality declines after many choices.

• a conclusion or resolution reached after consideration

  It was a difficult decision.

1. settling an issue; producing a definite result

   It was a decisive victory for the home team.

2. able to make decisions quickly and confidently

   A good leader needs to be decisive.

• not settling an issue

  These experiment results were indecisive.

Spelling rule "i before e except after c": "deceive" follows the rule. Related: deception, deceiver.

• to deliberately cause to believe something false

  He deceived his wife for years.

• the action or practice of deceiving

  His career was built on deceit.

• guilty of or involving deceit

  His deceitful behavior cost him his job.

• the action of deceiving someone

  The whole scheme was based on deception.

"Looks can be deceptive" = appearances can mislead.

• giving an appearance or impression different from the true one

  The calm waters are deceptive - there are dangerous currents.

"Dazzle camouflage": naval paint scheme used in WWI featuring high-contrast geometric patterns to confuse rangefinders.

1. to blind temporarily with a bright light

   The car's headlights dazzled him.

2. to amaze or impress greatly

   She dazzled the audience with her performance.

• extremely bright or impressive

  He gave a dazzling smile.

From Latin cumulare (to heap up). "Cumulative GPA": your average across all academic years.

• increasing by successive additions

  The cumulative effect of all these changes was significant.

"Zebra crossing" (British): pedestrian crossing painted with white stripes.

• a place where roads or railways cross, or where pedestrians cross

  Wait at the crossing for the green light.

American term for a pedestrian crossing on a road. British equivalent: pedestrian crossing or zebra crossing.

• (American) a specially marked place where people can cross a street

  Always use the crosswalk.

From an ancient belief that crocodiles weep while devouring their prey. Always plural; always negative/sarcastic.

• an insincere show of sorrow

  He shed crocodile tears at his rival's funeral.

American spelling. "Mystery cozy" / "cozy mystery": a subgenre of detective fiction with no graphic violence (e.g., Agatha Christie's Miss Marple).

• (American) giving a feeling of comfort, warmth, and relaxation

  They sat by the fire in a cozy living room.

British spelling. Same word, same pronunciation as American "cozy".

• (British) cozy

  The pub had a cosy atmosphere.

From Old French coart, from coe (tail): referring to an animal with its tail between its legs.

• a person who lacks courage

  Only a coward would attack from behind.

Antonym: brave, courageous. Related noun: cowardice.

• lacking courage

  It was a cowardly act.

• lack of courage

  His cowardice in battle was never forgotten.

"Couponing": collecting and using coupons strategically; a popular American hobby. Digital coupons now mostly replace paper.

• a voucher entitling the holder to a discount or to claim a refund

  She used a coupon to save $5.

More clinical/legal than "body". Related but distinct: "cadaver" (used in medical/anatomical context), "remains" (more euphemistic).

• a dead body, especially of a human

  The corpse was found in the river.

From Latin contra (against) + dicere (to say). Related: contradiction, contradictory.

1. to assert the opposite of (something said by someone)

   His later statement contradicted what he had said earlier.

2. to be in conflict with

   The evidence contradicts his story.

"Contradiction in terms": phrase that combines incompatible ideas ("jumbo shrimp", "deafening silence").

• the act of saying something opposite to a previous statement

  His answer was a clear contradiction of what he said yesterday.

• mutually opposed or inconsistent

  The reports give contradictory information.

More formal than "give" or "tell". Common: impart knowledge, impart wisdom, impart flavor.

1. to make (information) known

   He had no wisdom to impart.

2. to give (a quality) to something

   The herbs impart a wonderful flavor.

"Continuous" describes something uninterrupted (no gaps); "continual" describes something repeated frequently (with gaps) - see the distinction below.

• to persist in an activity or process

  They continued walking despite the rain.

"Continuous" describes something uninterrupted (no gaps); "continual" describes something repeated frequently (with gaps).

• forming an unbroken whole; without interruption

  The machine runs on a continuous cycle.

• occurring frequently, with intervals between

  They were interrupted by continual phone calls.

In film, the "continuity editor" ensures details (clothes, props, hair) match between takes: to avoid "continuity errors" the audience might notice.

• the unbroken consistency or progression of something

  There is a clear continuity between the two periods.

From Latin con- (together) + spirare (to breathe). Originally suggested people "breathing together" in secret.

• to make secret plans together to commit an unlawful act

  They conspired to overthrow the government.

• relating to or suggesting a conspiracy

  He gave her a conspiratorial wink.

• a secret plan by a group to do something unlawful or harmful

  They were accused of conspiracy to commit fraud.

Examples: faked moon landing, 9/11 truthers, JFK assassination theories. Spreads widely on the internet.

• a belief that an event was caused by a secret group rather than the apparent cause

  The conspiracy theory about vaccines has been thoroughly debunked.

• a person involved in a conspiracy

  The conspirators were arrested.

• a person who takes part in a secret illegal plan

  His coconspirator testified in court.

Verb stress on second syllable. As a noun, stress on first ("conserves" = fruit preserves). Related: conservation, conservative, conservatory.

• to protect from harm or destruction; to use carefully

  We must conserve water during the drought.

• averse to change or innovation and holding traditional values

  They were very conservative in their outlook.

"Conservation of energy": physics law (energy can't be created or destroyed). "Wildlife conservation": protection of species and habitats.

• the preservation of the natural environment

  He works in wildlife conservation.

• a person who is averse to change and holds traditional values

  He has always voted as a conservative.

Famous Julius Caesar quote: "Veni, vidi, vici" ("I came, I saw, I conquered"). Used figuratively for personal challenges ("conquer your fears").

1. to take control of by use of military force

   The Romans conquered most of Europe.

2. to overcome or master

   She finally conquered her fear of flying.

"The Norman Conquest" (1066) is the most famous English historical conquest.

• the act of conquering territory

  The Spanish conquest of Mexico began in 1519.

William the Conqueror (1028-1087): French nobleman who invaded England in 1066.

• a person who conquers a place or its people

  The conquerors imposed their language on the conquered.

The US federal legislature, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives.

• the national legislative body of the United States

  Congress passed the bill after months of debate.

In the US, refers to a member of the House of Representatives (not the Senate). Gender-neutral alternative: "member of Congress" or simply "representative".

• a male member of the United States Congress

  The Congressman addressed his constituents.

• a female member of the United States Congress

  The Congresswoman voted against the bill.

From 'Congress' (the US legislature).

• relating to a congress, especially the US Congress

  The bill faces a tough congressional vote.

From Latin caper (goat) + cornu (horn). Tenth sign of the zodiac (Dec 22 - Jan 19). The Tropic of Capricorn marks the southernmost latitude where the sun appears directly overhead.

• a sign of the zodiac, the Goat

  She's a Capricorn.

From "metamorphosis". Popularized by 1990s film special effects (Terminator 2, Michael Jackson's "Black or White").

• to change smoothly from one image or form to another

  The caterpillar morphs into a butterfly.

Two distinct senses: literal (water) and figurative (excessive praise). The latter is often slightly dismissive.

1. to flow out rapidly and in large quantities

   Water gushed from the broken pipe.

2. to speak with extravagant enthusiasm

   She gushed about her new boyfriend.

Standard in shipping/freight. Includes consignor, consignee, route, and contents. "Air waybill" (AWB) used in aviation; "bill of lading" is similar but for sea/land shipping.

• a document accompanying a shipment listing the goods and shipping details

  The driver checked the waybill before unloading.

Two pronunciations: /eɪdʒd/ (one syllable) = of a specified age; /ˈeɪdʒəd/ (two syllables) = elderly or matured.

• of the age specified

  He has two children, aged five and seven.

"Aged cheese" / "aged wine" / "aged whiskey": matured for flavor.

1. having lived a long time; old

   His aged grandmother sat by the fire.

2. matured over a long period

   She served an aged Parmesan.

"A Fistful of Dollars": famous 1964 Sergio Leone Spaghetti Western starring Clint Eastwood.

• the amount that can be held in a fist

  He grabbed a fistful of candy.

From the verb "cleave" (to split). The everyday body sense often dominates, but the geological/mineral meaning is fundamental in earth science.

1. the space between a woman's breasts as visible in a low-cut top

   The dress showed a hint of cleavage.

2. a division or split

   There is a deep cleavage in the party.

"Grey's Anatomy": long-running medical TV drama; also the title of the famous medical textbook (Gray's Anatomy, 1858).

• the branch of science concerned with the bodily structure of organisms

  She studies human anatomy.

• relating to anatomy

  The textbook has detailed anatomical diagrams.

• a person who studies the bodily structure of organisms

  Da Vinci was a pioneering anatomist.

More commonly used figuratively now: to analyze something in detail.

• to dissect; to examine in detail

  The critic anatomized the novel's flaws.

"Lip gloss": cosmetic for shiny lips. "Glossy magazine" = a magazine printed on shiny paper, usually fashion/celebrity.

• a shine or luster on a smooth surface

  The car had a high gloss finish.

"Gloss over" = to deal with quickly to hide an awkward truth.

• to give a deceptively attractive appearance to

  The report glossed over the company's problems.

• smooth and shiny

  The magazine was printed on glossy paper.

Common in airports, train stations, sports stadiums. From Latin concursus (running together).

• a large open area inside or in front of a public building

  They met at the airport concourse.

From French La Morgue, the name of a famous building in Paris where unidentified bodies were displayed. Also used metaphorically for a quiet, lifeless place.

• a place where dead bodies are kept

  The body was taken to the morgue for identification.

From French marque (mark, brand). Homophone with "mark". Common in automotive journalism.

• a make of car, especially as a brand name

  Ferrari is a famous Italian marque.

In US history, "Confederate" (capitalized) refers to the southern states that seceded in 1861: the Confederate flag remains a controversial symbol.

• an ally or accomplice

  He used a confederate in the magic trick.

"The Confederacy" = the 11 southern US states (1861-1865). "A Confederacy of Dunces": famous 1980 novel by John Kennedy Toole.

• a league or alliance, especially of states or political organizations

  The Iroquois Confederacy united six Native nations.

Looser than a federation. Switzerland is officially the "Swiss Confederation" (though functions more like a federation now).

• an alliance of independent states

  They formed a confederation for mutual defense.

From Latin octoginta (eighty). Related: septuagenarian (70s), nonagenarian (90s), centenarian (100+).

• a person between 80 and 89 years old

  She remained an active octogenarian.

Antonym: sharp. "To put it bluntly": a common preamble to delivering uncomfortable truth.

1. (of a knife) lacking a sharp edge or point

   The knife was too blunt to cut meat.

2. speaking plainly, even if rudely

   His blunt criticism upset her.

Often paired with an unwelcome truth: "bluntly put", "to be blunt".

• in a direct, plain way, even if rude

  To put it bluntly, the plan will not work.

"Gig economy": modern term for freelance/contract work (Uber, DoorDash, Fiverr). Origin uncertain but musician slang since the early 1900s.

1. a live musical performance

   The band has a gig at the club tonight.

2. (informal) a job, especially a temporary one

   She got a gig writing for the magazine.

In the US, the Second Amendment refers to "a well-regulated militia". Modern militias can be official (national guard) or unofficial/private.

• a military force raised from civilians, often supplementing a regular army

  The villages organized a militia to defend themselves.

• a member of a militia

  The militiamen took up positions on the ridge.

• relating to or characteristic of soldiers or armed forces

  He wore a military uniform.

Usually preceded by "the": "the military".

• the armed forces of a country

  He served in the military for twenty years.

In medieval Europe, the Bible was originally in Latin; "vernacular translations" (e.g., Luther's German Bible) were revolutionary. "In the vernacular" = in everyday language.

• the everyday language spoken by ordinary people of a particular region

  The novel captures the vernacular of working-class London.

From Greek episteme (knowledge). Related: epistemology (the study of how we know what we know).

• relating to knowledge or its validation

  The philosopher discussed epistemic justification.

Roman name for Greek hero Odysseus. James Joyce's "Ulysses" (1922) is one of the most famous novels of the 20th century, set on a single day in Dublin.

• the Latin name of the Greek hero Odysseus, central character of Homer's Odyssey

  Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" portrays the aging hero longing for adventure.

From Latin fuga (flight). Famous: Bach's "The Art of Fugue". "Fugue state" (psychology) = a rare temporary loss of identity.

• a musical composition in which a short theme is introduced and then repeated and developed by other voices

  He composed a four-voice fugue.

Famous: "Just do it" (Nike), "Think different" (Apple), "I'm lovin' it" (McDonald's). British spelling often "tagline" (one word).

• a catchy phrase associated with a person, product, or organization

  The movie's tag line was "Be afraid. Be very afraid."

From Greek kryptos (hidden). Same root as "crypt" (underground burial chamber) and "cryptography". "Cryptic crossword": a British style of crossword with elaborate wordplay clues.

• having a meaning that is mysterious or obscure

  He left a cryptic note before disappearing.

Onomatopoeic. Also spelled "hiccough" (older, misspelled variant). Common cures: holding breath, drinking water, scaring. Persistent hiccups can be a medical issue.

1. a sudden involuntary contraction of the diaphragm

   She got the hiccups after eating too fast.

2. a minor difficulty or temporary problem

   There was a small hiccup with the printer.

More formal than "argument". "Industrial dispute" = labor conflict. "In dispute" = being disagreed about.

• a disagreement or argument

  The neighbors had a dispute over the property line.

• to argue about; to question the truth or validity of

  They disputed the referee's decision.

= cannot be argued against; beyond doubt.

• unable to be challenged or denied; certain

  The DNA evidence was indisputable.

Historical: medieval academic disputations were formal debates, a key training method in scholastic universities.

• a formal debate

  The medieval university held public disputations.

Common in boxing: "undisputed champion", holds all major belts simultaneously.

• not questioned or doubted by anyone

  He is the undisputed champion.

British informal: much more common in UK than US. American equivalents: "sketchy", "shady".

• (British, informal) dishonest, unreliable, or unsafe

  He bought it from a dodgy website.

"Jump on the bandwagon" = join a trend or movement once it becomes popular. "Bandwagon fan" = a sports fan who supports whoever is winning.

• a popular activity that more and more people support

  Many companies jumped on the AI bandwagon.

"US Marshal": federal law enforcement officer (oldest US police agency, since 1789). Marshal in many countries = highest military rank.

• an official with various administrative duties, especially in a military context

  The marshal led the parade.

• to assemble and arrange in a logical order

  She marshaled her arguments before the meeting.

Often associated with communist/socialist movements ("Comrade Lenin"). Used non-politically: military comrades-in-arms, comrades on a journey.

• a companion who shares one's activities, often in a struggle

  He honored his fallen comrades.

Often associated with military or political (communist) contexts. "Comrade": communist greeting. "Esprit de corps": similar concept, French.

• the friendship and trust between comrades

  There was a strong sense of comradeship among the soldiers.

British spelling: computerise. Coined in the mid-20th century as computers became commercially available.

• to convert (a system or operation) to operation by computer

  They computerized the library's catalog.

• controlled or operated by a computer

  The factory uses a computerized assembly line.

From Latin comprehendere (to grasp). More formal than "understand".

• to grasp mentally; to understand

  I can't comprehend how this happened.

"Reading comprehension": standard component of language education and standardized tests.

• the action of understanding

  The book is beyond his comprehension.

"Comprehensive school" (British): secondary school accepting all students. "Comprehensive insurance": covers a wide range of risks.

• including all or nearly all elements

  They produced a comprehensive report.

• thoroughly; completely

  The home team was comprehensively beaten.

Antonym: incomprehensible. "Comprehensible input": language-learning concept (Stephen Krashen) for material slightly above current ability.

• able to be understood

  The explanation was clear and comprehensible.

"Pale complexion", "fair complexion", "dark complexion": common collocations. Figurative: "This puts a different complexion on the matter."

• the natural color and condition of skin, especially the face

  She has a clear complexion.

"Compare to" (highlights similarities) vs. "compare with" (more analytical, comparing differences too). Often used interchangeably.

• to estimate, measure, or note the similarity or dissimilarity between

  Compare these two photos.

In grammar, the comparative form of an adjective (e.g., "bigger", "more interesting") vs. the superlative ("biggest", "most interesting").

• measured or judged by comparison

  They live in comparative comfort.

"In comparison with" / "by comparison": common phrases for drawing contrasts.

• the act of comparing

  There is no comparison between the two products.

Note: stress on first syllable, NOT on "-pair-" as in "compare". "Beyond comparison" / "incomparable" = so good no comparison applies.

• able to be compared; similar

  The two houses are comparable in price.

In France, "commune" = the smallest administrative division (like a township). Famous: "Paris Commune" (1871), a brief revolutionary government.

• a group of people living together and sharing possessions

  They lived in a hippie commune in the 1970s.

Verb stress on second syllable; noun stress on first.

• to share one's thoughts and feelings deeply

  He went to the woods to commune with nature.

• shared by all members of a community

  The apartments share a communal garden.

From Latin colloquium (conversation). Related: colloquialism (a colloquial word or phrase).

• (of language) used in ordinary conversation; informal

  "Gonna" is a colloquial form of "going to".

From Latin "colloquium" (conversation). Examples: "y'all", "ain't", "gonna". Distinct from slang (newer/edgier) and dialect (regional).

• an informal word or phrase used in everyday conversation

  "Y'all" is a Southern colloquialism.

From Latin collidere (to strike together). Related: collision, collider (as in the Large Hadron Collider).

• to hit something with force

  The two cars collided at the intersection.

• an instance of one moving object or person striking violently against another

  A midair collision between two aircraft.

"Large Hadron Collider" (LHC) - the world's largest particle accelerator, at CERN.

• a machine that accelerates and collides subatomic particles

  Scientists used the collider to discover the Higgs boson.

From Greek orgasmos (excitement). "Multiple orgasms": a topic of considerable sex-research literature.

• the climax of sexual excitement

  They reached orgasm together.

Often used hyperbolically about non-sexual pleasures ("orgasmic chocolate cake").

• relating to or resembling an orgasm; intensely pleasurable

  The dessert was absolutely orgasmic.

Antonym: counterclockwise (American) or anticlockwise (British). Most clocks run clockwise; Hebrew is written right-to-left (sometimes called "counterclockwise direction").

• in the direction in which the hands of a clock move

  Turn the knob clockwise to tighten.

More formal/literary than "hold" or "grasp". Often used for hands or hugs.

• to grasp tightly with one's hand

  She clasped his hand in hers.

• a small device used to fasten things

  The necklace has a silver clasp.

Often used for celebrities, athletes, or fading brands. "Comeback tour": a tour by a previously inactive musician.

1. a return to a former position or success

   The boxer made a stunning comeback.

2. a quick witty reply

   She always has a clever comeback.

Reduplication (like "flip-flop", "zigzag"). Also a noun and adjective.

• to form a pattern of crossing lines

  Power lines criss-crossed the sky.

• a pattern of crossing lines

  The tablecloth had a criss-cross pattern.

• having a pattern of crossing lines

  The fence had a criss-cross design.

"15 minutes of fame": Andy Warhol's famous prediction that everyone would be famous briefly. Andy Warhol said: "In the future, everyone will be world-famous for 15 minutes."

• the state of being known by many people

  She rose to fame as a child actress.

Slightly more literary than "famous". Often used as "famed for".

• known about by many people; famous

  He is famed for his cooking.

Distinguish from "infamous" (well-known for something bad, not simply the negative of famous).

• known about by many people

  She is a famous actress.

"Famously difficult", "famously private" - common intensifier collocations.

• in a well-known way; notably

  He is famously private about his personal life.

From Italian. "Power trio" (rock music) = three-piece band with guitar, bass, drums (e.g., Cream, Rush, Nirvana).

• a group of three people or things, especially musicians

  The string trio performed beautifully.

British spelling: civilise. The word has historically been used in problematic colonial contexts (the "civilizing mission" justifying European imperialism).

• to bring (a place or people) to a stage of social and cultural development

  They believed they were civilizing the local tribes.

Often loaded: historically used to dismiss non-Western cultures. Modern: more often means polite/refined.

• at an advanced stage of social development; polite

  They had a civilized conversation.

• not civilized; barbaric

  His behavior was uncivilized.

"Civilization": popular Sid Meier video game series. "Western civilization": contested academic concept. "Clash of civilizations": Huntington's controversial 1996 book.

• the stage of human social development considered most advanced

  Ancient Egypt was a great civilization.

"Charity begins at home": proverb meaning take care of your own family before others. In the King James Bible, the famous "faith, hope, and charity": where charity = love (from Greek agape).

1. the voluntary giving of help to those in need

   They raised money for charity.

2. an organization set up to help those in need

   She donated to a children's charity.

"Charitable interpretation" = a generous or kind way of understanding someone's behavior or words.

• generous in giving help; relating to a charity

  She does a lot of charitable work.